Chapter 3.1 · Report

Turnout

In the November 2024 Current Population Survey, 79.6% of citizens aged twenty-five and older with a bachelor's degree reported voting, against 39.1% of those without a high school diploma.

Author: Vishal Singh
Affiliation: NYU Stern
Published: 3 October 2026

Every estimate of the chapter with its interval and every figure as a table, generated from the chapter's data files. Table n of this report is figure n of the chapter. The same report as Markdown: report.md.

Identification

Title

Turnout

Chapter

3.1 (Part III, Participation and coalitions; Coalitions and political differences)

Question

Who votes, and how does turnout differ by age, race, education and income?

Dek

In the November 2024 Current Population Survey, 79.6% of citizens aged twenty-five and older with a bachelor's degree reported voting, against 39.1% of those without a high school diploma.

Grain

individuals

Status

draft

Published

3 October 2026

Updated

not revised

Data sources

CPS Voting and Registration Supplement. IPUMS-CPS November Voting and Registration Supplement, 25 biennial supplements 1976-2024; citizens from 1994; years: 1976-2024 (25 November samples, biennial, even years); weights: VOSUPPWT (supplement person weight)
State presidential returns. State presidential returns 1976-2024, used only for the certified national total of ballots counted for president; years: 1976-2024 (13 elections); weights: none (full counts)
ANES Cumulative Data File. Cumulative Data File 1976-2024, self-reported turnout in presidential years, as a comparison of levels; years: 1948-2024 (33 study years; even years only after 2004; no 2006, 2010 or 2014 study); weights: weight_postelection (VCF9999)

Canonical URL

https://vishalsingh.org/politics/turnout

Markdown

https://vishalsingh.org/politics/turnout/report.md

BibTeX

@misc{singh2026turnout,
  author = {Singh, Vishal},
  title = {Turnout},
  year = {2026},
  url = {https://vishalsingh.org/politics/turnout},
  note = {In The Public Mind. Published 3 October 2026.}
}

Principal estimates

The facts the dek and the opening prose cite, in order of appearance. Every fact is in the table of all estimates below.

Estimand	Population	Period	Value	Interval	n	Weights	Source	Fact id
weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more	2024 presidential election	79.6%	95% CI 79.0% to 80.2%	25,742	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	v_ba_2024
weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 25 and older without a high school diploma	2024 presidential election	39.1%	95% CI 37.4% to 40.8%	4,008	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	v_lths_2024
weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	65.3%	95% CI 64.9% to 65.7%	72,590	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	cit_2024
weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2020 presidential election	66.8%	95% CI 66.4% to 67.1%	81,898	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	cit_2020
weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	1996 presidential election	58.4%	95% CI 58.0% to 58.7%	84,090	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	cit_1996
share of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more and without a high school diploma	2024	70%	95% CI 67% to 73%	29,750	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	regshare_educ_2024
count of person records	adults 18 and older with a positive supplement weight	1976 to 2024	2,494,218			none (count of records)	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	n_adults
count of person records	citizens 18 and older	1994 to 2024	1,422,311			none (count of records)	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	n_citizens
weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	citizens 18 and older	2004	10.8%		96,452	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	nr_2004
weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	citizens 18 and older	2018	17.7%		88,749	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	nr_2018
weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	citizens 18 and older	2024	14.1%		72,590	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	nr_2024
weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2004 presidential election	63.8%	95% CI 63.5% to 64.2%	96,452	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	cit_2004
weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2008 presidential election	63.6%	95% CI 63.3% to 64.0%	92,360	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	cit_2008

Findings

In the November 2024 Current Population Survey (CPS), 65.3% (95% CI 64.9% to 65.7%) of citizens reported voting, against 66.8% in 2020 and 58.4% in 1996, the first presidential year in which the extract identifies citizens. In 2024 turnout rose with age, education and family income. Among citizens twenty-five and older, 79.6% of those with a bachelor's degree voted, against 39.1% of those without a high school diploma.

Registration accounts for most of the 2024 gaps by age, education, income and ethnicity. About 70% (95% CI 67% to 73%) of the education gap in turnout arises at registration rather than in voting among the registered (Table 2). The share for the White-Black gap depends on how nonresponse is coded. Turnout here is the share of a group who report voting, and the default group is citizens eighteen and older.

The data are the Voting and Registration Supplement, a November addition to the Census Bureau's monthly household survey, in the harmonized IPUMS extract. The extract holds 2,494,218 adults from the biennial supplements of 1976 to 2024, of whom 1,422,311 are citizens interviewed from 1994, the first year the extract records citizenship. Respondents say whether they voted, and no report is checked against a record. A person who does not answer counts as not voting, the Census Bureau's convention. The share who do not answer rose from 10.8% of citizens in 2004 to 17.7% in 2018 and was 14.1% in 2024. Hur and Achen attribute an apparent fall in 2008 relative to 2004 to this coding and to rising nonresponse [1]. In the series here, turnout among citizens was 63.8% in 2004 and 63.6% in 2008. Wolfinger and Rosenstone's study of who votes analyzed the 1972 and 1974 supplements [2].Estimates are weighted with the supplement person weight, a survey weight. Intervals are 95% confidence intervals from the Kish effective sample size [3], which treat the weighted sample as a simple random sample. The extract has no replicate weights, so the intervals leave out the clustering and stratification of the CPS design and are narrower than design-based intervals by an unknown factor.

Turnout in 2018 to 2024 was the highest of its type since 1994

Table 1 plots turnout in every election from 1994. In presidential years it was 58.4% in 1996, 63.8% in 2004 and 63.6% in 2008, then 61.8% in 2012 and 61.4% in 2016, and 66.8% in 2020 and 65.3% in 2024. In midterm years it stayed between 41.9% in 2014 and 48.4% in 1994 until the 2018 midterm, at 53.4%, and the 2022 midterm, at 52.2%. The presidential year exceeded the next midterm by 19.9 (95% CI 19.4 to 20.4) points in 2012, by 7.9 (95% CI 7.4 to 8.5) in 2016 and by 14.6 (95% CI 14.0 to 15.1) in 2020, against 13.1 (95% CI 12.5 to 13.6) in 1996.

Table 1. Turnout among citizens in 2018 to 2024 was higher than in any election of its type from 1994 to 2016

The citizens series starts in 1994 because the extract records citizenship only from that year, and a rate with all adults in the denominator behaves differently. The second button of Table 1 shows it. Counting noncitizens as not voting, presidential-year turnout was 59.2% in 1976, 54.2% in 1996 and 59.3% in 2024. The two series differ because noncitizens, who count as not voting in the second, were 6.8% (95% CI 6.7% to 7.0%) of adults in 1994 and 9.3% (95% CI 9.1% to 9.5%) in 2024. McDonald and Popkin showed that a denominator which includes people who cannot vote misreads a trend in turnout [4].

Before 1994 the extract has no citizenship item. The supplement did not ask the voting question of 32.2% of Hispanic adults in 1980 and 40.2% in 1992, against 1.7% and 1.9% of White non-Hispanic adults, a pattern that matches the noncitizen shares of 1994 (40.8% and 1.8%). The Census Bureau counts these adults as not voting in its total-population series, and so does the all-residents view, which is the only series that runs from 1976 on one definition. The gradients below cover citizens from 1994. The Census Bureau's own tables give a citizen series for earlier years from an item that the extract lacks, and the last section says what that series shows.

Registration accounts for most of the 2024 turnout gaps

Table 2 shows three rates for the same groups: the share who voted, the share who were registered, and the share of the registered who voted. A citizen counts as registered if the person voted or said they were registered. The differences in turnout in 2024 were 23.9 (95% CI 22.7 to 25.2) points between citizens aged sixty-five and older and those aged eighteen to twenty-nine, and 40.5 (95% CI 38.7 to 42.4) between a bachelor's degree and no high school diploma. They were 20.2 (95% CI 19.3 to 21.1) between the highest and lowest third of family income, 10.4 (95% CI 9.0 to 11.8) between White and Black citizens and 19.9 (95% CI 18.6 to 21.2) between White and Hispanic citizens. The education difference is the largest of the five.

Table 2. In 2024 turnout rose with age, education and family income, and Hispanic citizens had the lowest turnout of the racial and ethnic groups

Writing the turnout rate as the registered share times the share of the registered who vote splits each difference into two parts, and the methods note gives the formula. The split depends on which part is changed first, so the text reports the symmetric midpoint, the range across the two orders for education, and a bootstrap interval that omits the design effect. In 2024 the registered share differed more across groups than the share of the registered who vote. For education the registered share of citizens ran from 51.4% among those without a high school diploma to 84.5% among those with a bachelor's degree, while the share of the registered who voted ran only from 76.1% to 94.2%. The registered shares thus differed by 33.2 (95% CI 31.3 to 35.0) points and the shares of the registered who voted by 18.1 (95% CI 16.0 to 20.2). The registration part of the turnout difference was 68% (95% CI 65% to 71%) for age, 70% (95% CI 67% to 73%) for education, 69% (95% CI 67% to 71%) for income, 62% (95% CI 55% to 68%) for White and Black citizens and 70% (95% CI 67% to 74%) for White and Hispanic citizens. For education the two orders of the split give 62% and 77%. In the 2020 presidential election it ran from 72% for age to 83% for White and Black citizens. In the 2022 midterm it ran from 48% for age to 62% for income, nearer an even split, since voting among the registered differed more across groups. The age difference among the registered was 28.2 (95% CI 26.7 to 29.6) points in 2022 against 10.8 (95% CI 9.7 to 11.9) in 2024.

A person who does not answer the voting question counts as not voting, and as not registered unless the person reported being registered, and nonresponse differs by group. In 2024 it was 18.0% of citizens aged eighteen to twenty-nine against 12.1% of those sixty-five and older, and 17.6% of Black and 17.0% of Hispanic citizens against 12.6% of White citizens. Part of the registration component therefore reflects who answers the survey. Among respondents only, the registration part of the White-Black difference was 44% in 2024, 61% in 2020 and 38% in 2022, against 62%, 83% and 53% under the Census convention. It is the only 2024 share that falls below an even split; among respondents the other four stay above it, at 67% for education, 65% for age, 65% for income and 67% for ethnicity. Dropping the nonrespondents also changes some turnout differences. The White minus Black difference was 7.7 (95% CI 6.3 to 9.1) points among respondents against 10.4 under the Census convention, and the education difference was 42.9 (95% CI 40.9 to 44.9) against 40.5. The age, Hispanic and income differences were 23.0, 19.6 and 20.7, close to their Census-convention values.

Age: the gap between the oldest and youngest narrowed from 1996 to 2008

Table 3 follows the four age groups. The oldest group voted most and the youngest least in every election. In presidential years the gap between citizens aged sixty-five and older and those aged eighteen to twenty-nine fell from 29.5 (95% CI 28.4 to 30.7) points in 1996 to 19.3 (95% CI 18.1 to 20.4) in 2008, a change of −10.3 (95% CI −11.9 to −8.7) points. It rose to 27.0 in 2012, was 20.4 (95% CI 19.2 to 21.5) in 2020 and was 23.9 (95% CI 22.7 to 25.2) in 2024, when citizens aged sixty-five and older reported voting at 74.7% and those aged eighteen to twenty-nine at 50.7%. The narrowing between 1996 and 2008 came from the youngest group, whose turnout rose from 39.6% to 51.1%, while the oldest group's moved from 69.1% to 70.3%.

Table 3. Turnout was highest in the oldest and lowest in the youngest age group in every election, and the gap between them fell from 29.5 points in 1996 to 19.3 in 2008

In midterm years the gap was 37.1 points in 1994, 39.5 (95% CI 38.5 to 40.5) in 2014 and 30.6 (95% CI 29.4 to 31.7) in 2018, a change of −9.0 (95% CI −10.5 to −7.5) points from 2014, and it was 35.7 in 2022, up by +5.1 (95% CI 3.5 to 6.7) points from 2018. A cross-section cannot say whether the narrowing means that young adults vote more than earlier young adults did, because each survey interviews different people and the age groups differ in other ways too. Chapter 3.7, Age and generation separates age and birth cohort where the data allow it, and panel studies that follow the same young adults over time are the usual tool for how voting habits form [5].

Race and ethnicity: Black turnout fell below White turnout after 2012

Table 4 compares four groups with White non-Hispanic citizens. In 2024 White non-Hispanic citizens voted at 70.5%, Black citizens at 60.1%, Asian citizens at 57.6% and Hispanic citizens at 50.6%. The White minus Black difference was 7.7 (95% CI 6.5 to 9.0) points in 1996 and 0.9 (95% CI −0.3 to 2.1) in 2008, an interval that includes zero. In 2012 Black turnout was above White turnout, and the difference was −2.5 (95% CI −3.6 to −1.4) points. It was then 5.7 in 2016, 8.1 (95% CI 6.9 to 9.4) in 2020 and 10.4 (95% CI 9.0 to 11.8) in 2024, a change of +12.9 (95% CI 11.1 to 14.7) points from 2012. The White minus Hispanic difference was 16.8 points in 1996 and 19.9 (95% CI 18.6 to 21.2) in 2024, a change of +3.1 (95% CI 1.0 to 5.2) points. The White minus Asian difference went from 22.5 (95% CI 20.3 to 24.7) points in 2004 to 11.6 (95% CI 9.8 to 13.4) in 2020 and 12.9 (95% CI 11.0 to 14.7) in 2024, a change of −9.6 (95% CI −12.5 to −6.8) points since 2004.

Table 4. Black turnout went from above White turnout in 2012 to below it in 2024, and Hispanic turnout stayed below White turnout in every election

The buttons for all residents count noncitizens as not voting. Noncitizens were 30.3% of Hispanic adults and 27.3% of Asian adults in 2024, against 1.8% of White non-Hispanic adults, so the denominator moves the Hispanic and Asian lines far more than the White line. The White minus Hispanic difference was 34.0 (95% CI 32.9 to 35.0) points among all residents in 2024 against 19.9 among citizens. Chapter 3.3, Hispanic, Black and Asian voters (planned) takes up how the three groups voted. The race groups are single-race and non-Hispanic, except for the Hispanic group of any race, and the survey allowed respondents to report more than one race from 2003.

Education: the degree-to-no-diploma gap was wider in 2024 than in 1996

Education is measured for citizens twenty-five and older, and Table 5 shows four levels. The order of the levels is the same in every election. In presidential years the gap between a bachelor's degree and no high school diploma was 36.1 (95% CI 34.9 to 37.3) points in 1996, 37.7 in 2008, 36.3 (95% CI 34.6 to 37.9) in 2020 and 40.5 (95% CI 38.7 to 42.4) in 2024. The change from 1996 to 2024 was +4.5 (95% CI 2.3 to 6.6) points, and the change from 2020 to 2024 was +4.3 (95% CI 1.8 to 6.7) points. The gap between a bachelor's degree and a high school diploma changed less, from 22.9 (95% CI 21.9 to 23.8) points in 1996 to 24.3 (95% CI 23.3 to 25.3) in 2024, a change of +1.4 (95% CI 0.1 to 2.8) points.

Table 5. The turnout gap between citizens with a bachelor's degree and those without a high school diploma was wider in 2024 than in 1996

In midterm years the gap was 29.1 points in 1998, 32.5 in 2014 and 38.4 (95% CI 36.7 to 40.1) in 2022. Chapter 3.4, The diploma divide covers the issues on which graduates and non-graduates differ.

Family income: turnout rose with income, and the gap changed little after 2012

Family income is reported in brackets that differ across decades: fourteen through 2002 and sixteen from 2004, with different dollar limits. A fixed dollar scale would compare different parts of the distribution, so the groups here are within-year thirds. In each year the brackets are laid out along the distribution of citizens, a bracket that straddles a cut-off is split in proportion, and each group holds the same weighted number of citizens. Table 6 shows the result. Turnout rose with income in every election.

Table 6. Turnout rose with family income in every election, and the highest third voted at rates about the same distance above the lowest third in 2012 and 2024

The highest third voted 23.8 (95% CI 22.9 to 24.7) points above the lowest in 1996, 20.9 (95% CI 20.0 to 21.8) in 2008, 20.1 (95% CI 19.2 to 20.9) in 2012 and 20.2 (95% CI 19.3 to 21.1) in 2024, when the highest third voted at 74.5% and the lowest third at 54.3%. The line breaks between 2008 and 2010 because the treatment of missing income changes. Through 2008 citizens who did not report a bracket are outside the thirds. The share who did not report rose from 11.4% of citizens in 1996 to 20.6% in 2008, and in 2008 they voted at 47.3% against 67.9% for citizens who reported income. From 2010 the Census Bureau allocates missing family income, so the thirds include allocated values. The two segments are not comparable in level. The change within the first, from 1996 to 2008, was −2.9 (95% CI −4.2 to −1.6) points, and the change within the second, from 2012 to 2024, was +0.2 (95% CI −1.1 to 1.4) points, an interval that includes zero. In midterm years the gap was 19.1 points in 1998, 17.7 in 2014, 19.7 in 2018 and 19.7 in 2022. Chapter 3.5, The income ladder takes up how income relates to the choice of party among those who vote.

Adjustment shrinks the White-Black difference and not the White-Asian one

The groups overlap: older citizens differ from younger ones in education, and White citizens differ from Black and Hispanic citizens in education and income. Table 7 compares each difference with one characteristic in a linear probability model against the same difference with age, race and ethnicity, education and family income in the model together. The models cover citizens twenty-five and older.

Table 7. Net of age, education and family income, the White-Black turnout difference was 3.4 points in 2024 and the Asian-White difference did not shrink

In 2024 the White minus Black difference fell from 9.7 (95% CI 7.6 to 11.8) points to 3.4 (95% CI 1.6 to 5.3), and the White minus Hispanic difference from 18.8 (95% CI 16.5 to 21.2) to 10.5 (95% CI 8.1 to 12.9). In 2020 the adjusted White minus Black difference was 0.9 (95% CI −1.0 to 2.9) points, an interval that includes zero, and in 2016 it was −2.6 (95% CI −5.2 to −0.1), with Black citizens above White citizens in the point estimate. The education and income differences shrank proportionally less: the bachelor's degree minus no diploma difference went from 40.5 (95% CI 36.5 to 44.6) points to 34.5 (95% CI 30.8 to 38.2), and the highest minus lowest third of income from 20.3 (95% CI 18.6 to 22.0) to 13.6 (95% CI 12.3 to 14.9). The White minus Asian difference was 13.1 (95% CI 11.4 to 14.8) alone and 14.6 (95% CI 13.0 to 16.1) with the other characteristics, and the difference between citizens sixty-five and older and those aged twenty-five to forty-four grew from 14.5 (95% CI 13.2 to 15.7) to 18.2 (95% CI 17.0 to 19.5). These are associations in a descriptive model, and they do not show that education or income changes anyone's probability of voting.

In 2020 and 2024 most voters voted by mail or early in person

The supplement asks every person who reports voting how they voted, in person or by mail, from 1996, and from 2004 whether they voted on Election Day or before it. Table 8 plots the shares. In 2004, 79.0% of voters voted in person on Election Day, 12.9% by mail and 7.8% in person before Election Day. By 2016 the shares were 59.5%, 20.9% and 18.9%. In 2020 only 30.4% voted in person on Election Day, while 43.0% voted by mail and 26.0% in person before Election Day, and mail or early in-person voting together accounted for 69.0%. In 2024 the shares were 39.6%, 29.0% and 30.7%, and mail or early in-person voting together accounted for 59.7%.

Table 8. Voting by mail rose to 43.0% of voters in 2020 and fell to 29.0% in 2024, while voting in person before Election Day reached 30.7%

From 2020 to 2024 the mail share fell from 43.0% to 29.0%, the early in-person share rose from 26.0% to 30.7% and the Election Day share rose from 30.4% to 39.6%. Election Day voting in 2024 was still below its 2016 level of 59.5%. In the 2022 midterm 31.8% of voters used the mail, against 23.1% in 2018, and 18.0% voted in person before Election Day. Older voters used the mail more: 53.6% of voters aged sixty-five and older voted by mail in 2020 against 39.9% of those aged eighteen to twenty-four, and 36.8% against 26.3% in 2024.

The Census Bureau's report on 2020 describes the rise as a response to changes in election procedures during the pandemic [6]. The Election Assistance Commission's tabulation of administrative records agrees with the survey on the mail and Election Day shares for 2020 [7], but the Commission publishes higher early in-person shares than the survey in both 2020 and 2024 [8]. Its percentages are computed state by state and sum to more than the whole. Its counts of early in-person ballots agree closely with the survey's weighted counts and show the same rise from 2020 to 2024. The survey's split between early and Election Day voting in 2024 should therefore be read as approximate (the methods note gives the figures). The checks on these items are a tabulation of codes and universes by year, which shows that only persons who reported voting have an answer in every supplement. The second check is a match of the 2018 to 2024 shares to the Census Bureau's published tables.

Reported voters exceeded ballots counted through 2000 and were close from 2004

Surveys of reported turnout are known to run above official turnout, and over-reporting is more common among some groups than others [9]. The rates here are not benchmarked to the voting-eligible population, the usual denominator for official turnout, because that series was not available. Table 9 compares counts and sets the weighted number of adults who reported voting against the ballots counted for president in each presidential year.

Table 9. The CPS count of reported voters exceeded the ballots counted for president by 6.0% to 11.6% through 2000 and was within 3% of them from 2004 to 2024

Relative to the count of ballots for president, the CPS count was 6.0% to 11.6% higher in the seven elections from 1976 to 2000. It was +2.8% (95% CI 2.2% to 3.4%) in 2004 and within 3% of the count in every election from 2004 to 2024, with −2.5% (95% CI −3.0% to −1.9%) in 2020, below the count. Two things push in opposite directions. Reporting voting when one did not raises the count. Counting a nonrespondent as not voting lowers it, and nonresponse rose from 10.8% of citizens in 2004 to 13.8% in 2008 and 15.7% in 2020. That rise is consistent with the narrowing of the count, but the data do not test it. Dropping the nonrespondents gives turnout of 79.2% in 2020 against 66.8% under the Census convention, and 76.1% in 2024 against 65.3%. The ANES, a different survey of a different sample, gives 77.3% (95% CI 75.9% to 78.6%) for 2020 and 78.9% (95% CI 77.3% to 80.5%) for 2024 with its post-election weight. Both are above the CPS rate under the Census convention, and the ANES is below the respondents-only CPS rate in 2020 and above it in 2024. The count comparison does not test the CPS denominator, the civilian noninstitutional population.

What these data cannot show

The CPS reports what respondents say, and the extract has no validated vote. The validated-vote study cited above found over-reporting more common among more educated respondents and found that using reported instead of verified voting inflates the effect of variables tied to over-reporting [9]. The education gradient and the registered shares of the better educated may therefore be overstated here by an amount the data do not give. Nonresponse is also tied to the characteristics studied, and the Census convention's treatment of it changes some differences: the White minus Black difference in 2024 is smaller among respondents than under the convention.

The supplements are repeated cross-sections. They interview different people each time, so they cannot say whether a group's turnout changed because its members changed their behavior or because its composition changed, for example as the share of citizens with a bachelor's degree grew. A gap between age groups mixes age, period and birth cohort. Chapter 3.2, The two coalitions takes up who the voters are compared with all eligible adults, a different question from the turnout rates here.

The headline comparison starts in 1994, and citizen turnout was higher earlier on the Census Bureau's own series. Its historical table of reported voting gives 67.7% for 1992, above the 66.8% of 2020 and the 65.3% of 2024, from a citizenship item that the extract lacks. The finding that 2018 to 2024 exceeded earlier elections of their type therefore covers 1994 to 2016 only. Citizens are also not the same as eligible voters. The citizen count includes citizens who cannot vote because of a criminal conviction or residence rules and leaves out citizens in institutions and abroad, and the extract has no measure of either. The CPS identifies roughly three hundred large counties, which supports no county or small-area estimate, and no state estimates are made, because state rates would need the benchmark that was not available here.

The intervals omit the CPS design effect, so every interval is too narrow by an unknown factor, and a result whose interval lies close to zero should be read with that in mind. The change in the gap between a bachelor's degree and a high school diploma from 1996 to 2024, +1.4 (95% CI 0.1 to 2.8), is an example. Family income is a householder-family bracket with allocated values from 2010, so it measures neither wealth nor individual earnings, and the thirds before and after 2010 are not on one footing. The race groups are broad, with all Asian citizens in one group and Hispanic citizens of every origin in another. The adjusted differences describe a model with four characteristics and do not identify why any group votes at a different rate. The method and timing items are self-reports. They match the Census Bureau tables, but the administrative tabulation gives higher early in-person shares, so the split between early and Election Day voting should be read as approximate.

Tables

Table 1. Turnout among citizens in 2018 to 2024 was higher than in any election of its type from 1994 to 2016

Percent of citizens 18 and older who reported voting, presidential and midterm elections, 1994 to 2024 (the second button counts all residents, 1976 to 2024); 95% intervals from the Kish effective sample size

Year	Election type	Universe	Turnout (%)	95% CI low	95% CI high	n respondents
1994	Midterm years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	48.4	48.0	48.8	95,272
1998	Midterm years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	45.3	44.9	45.7	84,076
2002	Midterm years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	46.1	45.8	46.5	98,638
2006	Midterm years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	47.8	47.4	48.2	94,095
2010	Midterm years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	45.5	45.2	45.9	94,208
2014	Midterm years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	41.9	41.6	42.3	96,267
2018	Midterm years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	53.4	53.1	53.8	88,749
2022	Midterm years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	52.2	51.8	52.6	73,083
1996	Presidential years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	58.4	58.0	58.7	84,090
2000	Presidential years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	59.5	59.1	59.8	82,428
2004	Presidential years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	63.8	63.5	64.2	96,452
2008	Presidential years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	63.6	63.3	64.0	92,360
2012	Presidential years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	61.8	61.5	62.2	94,311
2016	Presidential years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	61.4	61.0	61.7	93,794
2020	Presidential years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	66.8	66.4	67.1	81,898
2024	Presidential years	Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024	65.3	64.9	65.7	72,590
1978	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	45.9	45.6	46.2	104,870
1982	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	48.5	48.2	48.9	112,372
1986	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	45.8	45.4	46.1	108,410
1990	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	44.5	44.1	44.8	108,987
1994	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	45.0	44.7	45.4	101,630
1998	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	41.9	41.6	42.3	89,989
2002	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	42.3	41.9	42.6	105,682
2006	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	43.6	43.2	43.9	101,640
2010	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	41.8	41.4	42.1	101,338
2014	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	38.5	38.1	38.8	103,323
2018	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	49.0	48.6	49.3	95,154
2022	Midterm years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	47.7	47.3	48.1	78,597
1976	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	59.2	58.8	59.5	89,090
1980	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	59.0	58.7	59.4	123,591
1984	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	59.7	59.3	60.0	110,115
1988	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	57.1	56.8	57.5	102,945
1992	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	60.7	60.4	61.1	105,987
1996	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	54.2	53.9	54.6	89,609
2000	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	54.4	54.1	54.8	88,884
2004	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	58.3	57.9	58.6	103,696
2008	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	58.2	57.8	58.5	99,556
2012	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	56.5	56.2	56.9	101,568
2016	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	56.0	55.7	56.4	100,946
2020	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	61.3	60.9	61.7	87,589
2024	Presidential years	All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024	59.3	58.9	59.7	78,650

Views: Citizens, 1994 to 2024 (basis = Citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024); All residents, 1976 to 2024 (basis = All residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024).

Note: Turnout follows the Census Bureau convention: a respondent who did not answer the voting question counts as not voting.

Note: The all-residents view counts adults whom the supplement did not ask the voting question (mostly noncitizens) as not voting, the Census total-population convention. In 1976 the supplement asked every adult, so almost no one is outside the question universe that year. The values match the Census Bureau's published total-population series to the printed decimal from 1994 except in 2000, and sit slightly below it in 1984 to 1992 and in 2000; the methods note gives the differences.

Note: The citizens view starts in 1994, the first year the extract records citizenship. The Census Bureau's own tables give a citizen series for earlier years from an item that the extract does not carry.

Note: Intervals are model based (Kish effective sample size, normal approximation) and leave out the clustering and stratification of the CPS design, so they are narrower than design-based intervals by an unknown factor.

Source: Current Population Survey, November Voting and Registration Supplement (IPUMS-CPS), 1976 to 2024 (citizens from 1994); weighted (VOSUPPWT)

Data: vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/turnout_trend.json

Table 2. In 2024 turnout rose with age, education and family income, and Hispanic citizens had the lowest turnout of the racial and ethnic groups

Percent of citizens who voted, who were registered, and who voted among the registered, by age, race and ethnicity, education and family income, 2024 (buttons show other elections); 95% intervals from the Kish effective sample size

Year	Measure	Dimension	Group	Percent	95% CI low	95% CI high	n respondents
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	65.3	64.9	65.7	72,590
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	50.7	49.7	51.8	12,303
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	61.9	61.0	62.7	16,754
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	70.0	69.3	70.6	22,628
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	74.7	74.0	75.4	20,905
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	70.5	70.0	70.9	52,237
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	60.1	58.7	61.4	6,636
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	50.6	49.4	51.8	8,064
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	57.6	55.9	59.4	3,853
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	57.3	54.5	60.2	1,800
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	39.1	37.4	40.8	4,008
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	55.3	54.4	56.1	18,383
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	69.2	68.4	70.0	17,338
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	79.6	79.0	80.2	25,742
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	54.3	53.6	55.0	26,368
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	67.2	66.6	67.8	35,210
2024	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	74.5	73.9	75.1	28,984
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	73.6	73.3	74.0	72,590
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	61.7	60.7	62.7	12,303
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	71.9	71.2	72.7	16,754
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	77.2	76.6	77.8	22,628
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	80.3	79.7	80.9	20,905
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	77.7	77.2	78.1	52,237
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	70.3	69.1	71.6	6,636
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	61.5	60.3	62.6	8,064
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	66.2	64.5	67.8	3,853
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	68.9	66.2	71.5	1,800
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	51.4	49.6	53.1	4,008
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	65.8	65.0	66.6	18,383
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	78.2	77.5	78.9	17,338
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	84.5	84.0	85.0	25,742
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	65.1	64.4	65.8	26,368
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	74.8	74.2	75.4	35,210
2024	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	81.0	80.4	81.5	28,984
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	All citizens	All citizens	88.8	88.5	89.1	54,231
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	82.2	81.2	83.2	7,627
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	86.0	85.3	86.7	12,233
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	90.6	90.1	91.1	17,491
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 65 and older	93.0	92.6	93.5	16,880
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	White	90.7	90.4	91.1	40,754
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Black	85.4	84.3	86.5	4,698
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	82.3	81.1	83.4	5,000
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	87.1	85.6	88.6	2,546
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	83.2	80.7	85.8	1,233
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	76.1	74.0	78.2	2,115
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	84.0	83.3	84.7	12,334
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	88.5	87.9	89.1	13,658
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	94.2	93.8	94.6	21,949
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Lowest third	83.4	82.8	84.1	17,698
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Middle third	89.8	89.4	90.3	26,950
2024	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Highest third	92.0	91.6	92.5	23,573
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	52.2	51.8	52.6	73,083
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	31.2	30.3	32.1	12,305
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	46.9	46.1	47.8	16,909
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	58.3	57.5	59.0	23,378
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	66.8	66.1	67.6	20,491
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	57.6	57.2	58.1	52,569
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	45.6	44.3	47.0	7,247
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	37.9	36.7	39.0	7,741
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	40.2	38.5	42.0	3,755
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	42.9	40.0	45.7	1,771
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	29.2	27.7	30.8	4,251
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	43.9	43.1	44.7	18,919
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	55.8	55.0	56.6	17,609
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	67.7	67.0	68.3	25,233
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	41.8	41.1	42.5	29,857
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	53.3	52.7	54.0	35,033
2022	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	61.5	60.8	62.2	25,708
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	69.1	68.7	69.5	73,083
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	53.5	52.5	54.5	12,305
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	68.0	67.2	68.8	16,909
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	73.4	72.8	74.0	23,378
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	77.4	76.7	78.0	20,491
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	73.2	72.8	73.6	52,569
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	64.6	63.4	65.9	7,247
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	57.8	56.6	59.0	7,741
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	59.8	58.0	61.5	3,755
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	63.7	60.9	66.4	1,771
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	48.7	47.0	50.4	4,251
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	62.2	61.4	63.0	18,919
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	74.7	73.9	75.4	17,609
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	80.3	79.8	80.9	25,233
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	60.2	59.5	60.8	29,857
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	70.9	70.2	71.5	35,033
2022	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	76.3	75.7	76.9	25,708
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	All citizens	All citizens	75.5	75.1	76.0	51,451
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	58.3	56.9	59.6	6,584
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	69.0	68.0	70.0	11,601
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	79.4	78.7	80.1	17,266
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 65 and older	86.4	85.8	87.0	16,000
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	White	78.7	78.3	79.2	38,831
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Black	70.6	69.1	72.1	4,840
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	65.5	64.0	67.0	4,424
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	67.3	65.1	69.5	2,232
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	67.3	63.9	70.7	1,124
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	60.0	57.6	62.4	2,106
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	70.6	69.7	71.6	12,050
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	74.7	73.9	75.6	13,339
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	84.2	83.7	84.8	20,514
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Lowest third	69.5	68.7	70.3	18,956
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Middle third	75.3	74.6	75.9	25,614
2022	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Highest third	80.5	79.9	81.2	19,807
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	66.8	66.4	67.1	81,898
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	54.1	53.2	55.0	14,347
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	64.4	63.6	65.1	19,144
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	71.0	70.4	71.6	27,161
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	74.5	73.8	75.1	21,246
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	70.9	70.5	71.4	59,555
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	62.8	61.6	64.0	8,419
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	53.7	52.6	54.9	8,163
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	59.3	57.6	61.1	3,860
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	58.7	55.9	61.5	1,901
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	43.7	42.1	45.2	5,000
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	58.0	57.3	58.8	21,412
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	71.1	70.4	71.8	20,091
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	80.0	79.4	80.5	27,130
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	56.1	55.5	56.8	30,319
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	67.7	67.1	68.3	33,174
2020	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	76.5	75.9	77.1	36,140
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	72.7	72.3	73.0	81,898
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	62.5	61.6	63.4	14,347
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	71.5	70.8	72.2	19,144
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	75.7	75.1	76.3	27,161
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	78.6	77.9	79.2	21,246
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	76.5	76.1	76.9	59,555
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	69.1	68.0	70.2	8,419
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	61.1	60.0	62.3	8,163
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	63.5	61.8	65.2	3,860
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	68.7	66.1	71.3	1,901
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	53.1	51.6	54.7	5,000
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	65.5	64.8	66.3	21,412
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	77.0	76.4	77.7	20,091
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	83.1	82.6	83.6	27,130
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	64.3	63.7	65.0	30,319
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	73.4	72.8	73.9	33,174
2020	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	80.3	79.8	80.9	36,140
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	All citizens	All citizens	91.9	91.6	92.1	59,993
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	86.6	85.8	87.4	8,900
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	90.0	89.4	90.6	13,745
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	93.7	93.4	94.1	20,600
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 65 and older	94.8	94.4	95.2	16,748
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	White	92.8	92.5	93.0	45,350
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Black	90.9	90.0	91.7	5,894
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	87.9	87.0	88.9	4,970
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	93.5	92.4	94.6	2,476
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	85.5	83.1	87.8	1,303
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	82.2	80.6	83.9	2,686
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	88.5	87.9	89.1	14,188
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	92.3	91.8	92.7	15,568
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	96.2	95.9	96.5	22,666
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Lowest third	87.2	86.7	87.8	19,967
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Middle third	92.3	91.9	92.7	24,506
2020	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Highest third	95.2	94.9	95.5	28,675
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	53.4	53.1	53.8	88,749
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	35.6	34.7	36.4	15,758
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	48.8	48.0	49.6	20,821
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	59.5	58.8	60.1	30,528
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	66.1	65.4	66.8	21,642
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	57.5	57.0	57.9	64,983
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	51.4	50.2	52.6	8,773
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	40.4	39.3	41.5	8,745
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	40.4	38.7	42.1	4,100
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	45.5	42.9	48.2	2,148
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	30.0	28.7	31.3	6,074
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	44.9	44.2	45.6	23,004
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	57.7	56.9	58.4	22,009
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	69.5	68.9	70.1	28,734
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	43.3	42.6	43.9	34,941
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	54.1	53.5	54.7	35,374
2018	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	62.9	62.3	63.5	36,649
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	66.9	66.5	67.2	88,749
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	52.9	52.0	53.8	15,758
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	64.3	63.6	65.1	20,821
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	71.4	70.8	72.0	30,528
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	76.0	75.3	76.6	21,642
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	71.0	70.6	71.4	64,983
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	64.5	63.3	65.6	8,773
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	53.7	52.6	54.9	8,745
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	52.6	50.8	54.3	4,100
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	62.0	59.4	64.5	2,148
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	47.2	45.8	48.6	6,074
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	60.3	59.5	61.0	23,004
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	72.2	71.5	72.9	22,009
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	78.7	78.2	79.2	28,734
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	59.1	58.4	59.7	34,941
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	67.2	66.6	67.8	35,374
2018	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	74.4	73.9	75.0	36,649
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	All citizens	All citizens	79.9	79.5	80.3	60,349
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	67.2	66.0	68.3	8,298
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	75.9	75.0	76.7	13,571
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	83.3	82.7	83.8	21,897
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 65 and older	87.1	86.5	87.6	16,583
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	White	80.9	80.5	81.3	46,399
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Black	79.7	78.5	80.9	5,775
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	75.2	73.8	76.5	4,687
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	76.8	74.8	78.8	2,151
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	73.5	70.6	76.4	1,337
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	63.6	61.6	65.6	2,930
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	74.5	73.7	75.3	14,108
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	79.9	79.2	80.6	16,064
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	88.3	87.8	88.8	22,907
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Lowest third	73.3	72.5	74.0	21,328
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Middle third	80.5	80.0	81.1	24,401
2018	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Highest third	84.6	84.0	85.1	27,344
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	61.4	61.0	61.7	93,794
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	46.1	45.3	47.0	17,431
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	58.8	58.0	59.5	21,923
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	66.6	66.1	67.2	33,170
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	70.9	70.2	71.6	21,270
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	65.3	64.9	65.7	69,164
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	59.6	58.5	60.7	9,556
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	47.6	46.4	48.7	8,703
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	48.9	47.2	50.7	4,079
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	50.2	47.6	52.7	2,292
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	37.3	36.0	38.6	6,908
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	53.9	53.2	54.6	24,702
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	66.0	65.3	66.7	23,525
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	77.1	76.6	77.7	28,684
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	50.2	49.6	50.8	32,737
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	62.5	61.9	63.1	42,544
2016	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	71.4	70.9	72.0	35,668
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	70.3	70.0	70.7	93,794
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	58.5	57.6	59.3	17,431
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	68.6	67.9	69.3	21,923
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	74.0	73.5	74.5	33,170
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	78.0	77.4	78.7	21,270
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	73.9	73.5	74.3	69,164
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	69.6	68.5	70.6	9,556
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	57.3	56.1	58.4	8,703
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	56.5	54.8	58.3	4,079
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	63.0	60.5	65.5	2,292
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	49.2	47.8	50.5	6,908
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	64.6	64.0	65.3	24,702
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	75.0	74.4	75.6	23,525
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	82.5	82.0	83.0	28,684
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	61.9	61.2	62.5	32,737
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	71.1	70.5	71.6	42,544
2016	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	78.1	77.6	78.6	35,668
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	All citizens	All citizens	87.3	87.0	87.6	66,881
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	78.9	78.0	79.8	10,241
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	85.6	85.0	86.3	15,171
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	90.0	89.6	90.4	24,684
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 65 and older	90.9	90.4	91.3	16,785
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	White	88.3	88.0	88.7	51,372
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Black	85.6	84.7	86.6	6,810
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	83.1	81.9	84.2	5,015
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	86.6	85.0	88.2	2,262
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	79.6	77.0	82.2	1,422
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	75.9	74.3	77.5	3,498
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	83.4	82.7	84.0	16,166
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	88.0	87.5	88.6	17,825
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	93.5	93.2	93.9	23,854
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Lowest third	81.2	80.6	81.8	20,718
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Middle third	87.9	87.5	88.4	30,683
2016	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Highest third	91.5	91.1	91.9	27,965
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	61.8	61.5	62.2	94,311
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	45.0	44.2	45.9	17,998
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	59.5	58.8	60.3	22,680
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	67.9	67.3	68.4	34,382
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	72.0	71.3	72.7	19,251
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	64.1	63.7	64.5	71,460
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	66.6	65.6	67.7	9,232
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	48.0	46.7	49.2	7,812
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	47.1	45.2	49.0	3,640
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	55.3	52.8	57.9	2,167
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	41.2	40.0	42.5	7,512
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	56.0	55.3	56.7	25,733
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	67.6	66.9	68.3	23,322
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	77.8	77.3	78.4	27,231
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	51.6	51.0	52.3	31,102
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	62.1	61.5	62.7	37,036
2012	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	71.7	71.1	72.3	41,910
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	71.2	70.9	71.5	94,311
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	57.8	57.0	58.7	17,998
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	70.2	69.5	70.9	22,680
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	75.4	74.9	75.9	34,382
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	79.4	78.8	80.1	19,251
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	73.7	73.4	74.1	71,460
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	73.2	72.2	74.2	9,232
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	58.7	57.5	59.9	7,812
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	56.1	54.3	58.0	3,640
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	67.9	65.5	70.3	2,167
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	54.5	53.2	55.7	7,512
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	66.9	66.2	67.5	25,733
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	76.9	76.2	77.5	23,322
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	83.4	82.9	83.9	27,231
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	63.3	62.7	63.9	31,102
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	71.3	70.8	71.9	37,036
2012	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	78.9	78.4	79.5	41,910
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	All citizens	All citizens	86.8	86.5	87.1	68,167
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	77.9	77.0	78.8	10,464
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	84.8	84.1	85.4	16,044
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	90.0	89.6	90.4	26,196
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 65 and older	90.6	90.1	91.2	15,463
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	White	87.0	86.7	87.3	53,258
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Black	91.0	90.3	91.8	6,847
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	81.7	80.5	82.9	4,547
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	83.9	82.1	85.7	2,054
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	81.5	79.1	84.0	1,461
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	75.7	74.3	77.2	4,129
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	83.8	83.1	84.4	17,415
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	87.9	87.4	88.5	18,059
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	93.3	92.9	93.7	22,925
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Lowest third	81.5	80.9	82.1	20,020
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Middle third	87.0	86.6	87.5	26,583
2012	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Highest third	90.8	90.4	91.2	32,994
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	63.6	63.3	64.0	92,360
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	51.1	50.2	51.9	17,867
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	61.8	61.1	62.5	23,057
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	69.2	68.6	69.7	34,266
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	70.3	69.5	71.1	17,170
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	66.1	65.7	66.5	71,497
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	65.2	64.1	66.3	8,607
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	49.9	48.6	51.1	6,925
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	47.2	45.3	49.2	3,349
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	57.5	54.7	60.2	1,982
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	41.6	40.4	42.8	8,467
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	57.0	56.3	57.7	26,066
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	70.6	69.9	71.3	22,758
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	79.3	78.7	79.9	24,625
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	57.0	56.3	57.7	27,450
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	68.7	68.0	69.3	26,322
2008	Voted (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	77.9	77.3	78.5	33,247
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	All citizens	All citizens	71.0	70.7	71.3	92,360
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	61.1	60.3	61.9	17,867
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	69.4	68.7	70.1	23,057
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	74.9	74.4	75.4	34,266
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Age	Ages 65 and older	77.4	76.7	78.1	17,170
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	White	73.5	73.1	73.9	71,497
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Black	70.1	69.1	71.2	8,607
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	59.4	58.2	60.7	6,925
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	55.0	53.0	56.9	3,349
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	67.7	65.1	70.2	1,982
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	53.3	52.1	54.5	8,467
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	66.1	65.4	66.7	26,066
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	77.1	76.4	77.7	22,758
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	83.0	82.4	83.5	24,625
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Lowest third	67.6	66.9	68.3	27,450
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Middle third	76.5	75.9	77.1	26,322
2008	Registered (share of citizens)	Family income	Highest third	83.4	82.8	83.9	33,247
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	All citizens	All citizens	89.6	89.4	89.9	66,700
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 18 to 29	83.5	82.8	84.3	10,951
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 30 to 44	89.1	88.5	89.6	16,222
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 45 to 64	92.4	92.0	92.7	26,021
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Age	Ages 65 and older	90.8	90.3	91.4	13,506
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	White	90.0	89.7	90.2	53,301
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Black	93.0	92.2	93.7	6,119
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Hispanic	84.0	82.8	85.2	4,090
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Asian	85.9	84.1	87.7	1,883
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Race and ethnicity	Other or multiple races	84.9	82.5	87.3	1,307
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Less than high school	78.1	76.7	79.4	4,586
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	High school graduate	86.3	85.8	86.9	17,531
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Some college	91.6	91.2	92.1	17,689
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Education (25 and older)	Bachelor's degree or more	95.6	95.3	95.9	20,803
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Lowest third	84.4	83.7	85.0	18,906
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Middle third	89.8	89.3	90.3	20,261
2008	Voted (share of the registered)	Family income	Highest third	93.5	93.1	93.9	27,640

Views: 2024 (year = 2024); 2020 (year = 2020); 2016 (year = 2016); 2012 (year = 2012); 2008 (year = 2008); 2022 (year = 2022); 2018 (year = 2018).

Note: Turnout follows the Census Bureau convention: a respondent who did not answer the voting question counts as not voting.

Note: Education is shown for citizens 25 and older and is missing for younger adults. Income groups are within-year thirds of the family-income bracket distribution of citizens.

Note: The 2022 and 2018 buttons show midterm elections and the others show presidential elections.

Source: Current Population Survey, November Voting and Registration Supplement (IPUMS-CPS), 2024, 2022, 2020, 2018, 2016, 2012 and 2008; weighted (VOSUPPWT)

Data: vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/turnout_by_group.json

Table 3. Turnout was highest in the oldest and lowest in the youngest age group in every election, and the gap between them fell from 29.5 points in 1996 to 19.3 in 2008

Percent of citizens who reported voting, by age group, presidential years 1996 to 2024 (the second button shows midterm years, 1994 to 2022); 95% intervals from the Kish effective sample size

Year	Election type	Group	Turnout (%)	95% CI low	95% CI high	n respondents
1996	Presidential	Ages 18 to 29	39.6	38.8	40.4	17,234
2000	Presidential	Ages 18 to 29	40.2	39.3	41.0	15,924
2004	Presidential	Ages 18 to 29	49.0	48.1	49.8	18,315
2008	Presidential	Ages 18 to 29	51.1	50.2	51.9	17,867
2012	Presidential	Ages 18 to 29	45.0	44.2	45.9	17,998
2016	Presidential	Ages 18 to 29	46.1	45.3	47.0	17,431
2020	Presidential	Ages 18 to 29	54.1	53.2	55.0	14,347
2024	Presidential	Ages 18 to 29	50.7	49.7	51.8	12,303
1996	Presidential	Ages 30 to 44	56.9	56.2	57.5	27,397
2000	Presidential	Ages 30 to 44	58.4	57.7	59.0	25,111
2004	Presidential	Ages 30 to 44	62.4	61.8	63.1	26,906
2008	Presidential	Ages 30 to 44	61.8	61.1	62.5	23,057
2012	Presidential	Ages 30 to 44	59.5	58.8	60.3	22,680
2016	Presidential	Ages 30 to 44	58.8	58.0	59.5	21,923
2020	Presidential	Ages 30 to 44	64.4	63.6	65.1	19,144
2024	Presidential	Ages 30 to 44	61.9	61.0	62.7	16,754
1996	Presidential	Ages 45 to 64	68.2	67.5	68.8	24,383
2000	Presidential	Ages 45 to 64	67.8	67.1	68.4	26,634
2004	Presidential	Ages 45 to 64	70.4	69.9	71.0	34,070
2008	Presidential	Ages 45 to 64	69.2	68.6	69.7	34,266
2012	Presidential	Ages 45 to 64	67.9	67.3	68.4	34,382
2016	Presidential	Ages 45 to 64	66.6	66.1	67.2	33,170
2020	Presidential	Ages 45 to 64	71.0	70.4	71.6	27,161
2024	Presidential	Ages 45 to 64	70.0	69.3	70.6	22,628
1996	Presidential	Ages 65 and older	69.1	68.3	70.0	15,076
2000	Presidential	Ages 65 and older	69.6	68.8	70.4	14,759
2004	Presidential	Ages 65 and older	71.0	70.2	71.8	17,161
2008	Presidential	Ages 65 and older	70.3	69.5	71.1	17,170
2012	Presidential	Ages 65 and older	72.0	71.3	72.7	19,251
2016	Presidential	Ages 65 and older	70.9	70.2	71.6	21,270
2020	Presidential	Ages 65 and older	74.5	73.8	75.1	21,246
2024	Presidential	Ages 65 and older	74.7	74.0	75.4	20,905
1994	Midterm	Ages 18 to 29	26.2	25.5	26.9	20,018
1998	Midterm	Ages 18 to 29	22.3	21.6	23.0	16,580
2002	Midterm	Ages 18 to 29	22.4	21.7	23.1	18,524
2006	Midterm	Ages 18 to 29	25.5	24.8	26.2	17,898
2010	Midterm	Ages 18 to 29	23.9	23.2	24.7	18,176
2014	Midterm	Ages 18 to 29	19.9	19.2	20.5	18,215
2018	Midterm	Ages 18 to 29	35.6	34.7	36.4	15,758
2022	Midterm	Ages 18 to 29	31.2	30.3	32.1	12,305
1994	Midterm	Ages 30 to 44	46.5	45.8	47.1	30,988
1998	Midterm	Ages 30 to 44	41.8	41.2	42.5	26,396
2002	Midterm	Ages 30 to 44	42.0	41.3	42.6	28,955
2006	Midterm	Ages 30 to 44	43.0	42.3	43.7	24,768
2010	Midterm	Ages 30 to 44	40.4	39.6	41.1	22,958
2014	Midterm	Ages 30 to 44	35.6	34.9	36.3	22,709
2018	Midterm	Ages 30 to 44	48.8	48.0	49.6	20,821
2022	Midterm	Ages 30 to 44	46.9	46.1	47.8	16,909
1994	Midterm	Ages 45 to 64	59.9	59.2	60.5	26,899
1998	Midterm	Ages 45 to 64	56.5	55.8	57.1	25,933
2002	Midterm	Ages 45 to 64	56.1	55.5	56.7	33,729
2006	Midterm	Ages 45 to 64	57.6	57.0	58.1	34,368
2010	Midterm	Ages 45 to 64	54.4	53.8	55.0	35,039
2014	Midterm	Ages 45 to 64	49.6	49.0	50.2	34,444
2018	Midterm	Ages 45 to 64	59.5	58.8	60.1	30,528
2022	Midterm	Ages 45 to 64	58.3	57.5	59.0	23,378
1994	Midterm	Ages 65 and older	63.3	62.5	64.1	17,367
1998	Midterm	Ages 65 and older	61.3	60.5	62.2	15,167
2002	Midterm	Ages 65 and older	62.7	61.9	63.5	17,430
2006	Midterm	Ages 65 and older	62.5	61.7	63.4	17,061
2010	Midterm	Ages 65 and older	60.8	60.0	61.6	18,035
2014	Midterm	Ages 65 and older	59.4	58.6	60.2	20,899
2018	Midterm	Ages 65 and older	66.1	65.4	66.8	21,642
2022	Midterm	Ages 65 and older	66.8	66.1	67.6	20,491

Views: Presidential years (election = Presidential); Midterm years (election = Midterm).

Note: Presidential years and midterm years are separate views; the default is presidential years.

Note: Turnout rises with age in every election in the point estimates; the intervals of the two oldest groups overlap in 1996, 2004 and 2008. Turnout follows the Census Bureau convention: a respondent who did not answer the voting question counts as not voting.

Source: Current Population Survey, November Voting and Registration Supplement (IPUMS-CPS), 1994 to 2024; weighted (VOSUPPWT)

Data: vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/age_trend.json

Table 4. Black turnout went from above White turnout in 2012 to below it in 2024, and Hispanic turnout stayed below White turnout in every election

Percent of citizens who reported voting, by race and ethnicity, presidential years 1996 to 2024 (other buttons show midterm years and all residents, noncitizens counted as not voting); 95% intervals from the Kish effective sample size

Year	Election type	Universe	Group	Turnout (%)	95% CI low	95% CI high	n respondents
1996	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	White	60.7	60.3	61.1	68,779
2000	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	White	62.0	61.6	62.4	65,881
2004	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	White	67.2	66.8	67.6	76,209
2008	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	White	66.1	65.7	66.5	71,497
2012	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	White	64.1	63.7	64.5	71,460
2016	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	White	65.3	64.9	65.7	69,164
2020	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	White	70.9	70.5	71.4	59,555
2024	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	White	70.5	70.0	70.9	52,237
1996	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Black	53.0	51.8	54.2	8,035
2000	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Black	57.1	55.9	58.2	8,285
2004	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Black	60.3	59.2	61.5	8,882
2008	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Black	65.2	64.1	66.3	8,607
2012	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Black	66.6	65.6	67.7	9,232
2016	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Black	59.6	58.5	60.7	9,556
2020	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Black	62.8	61.6	64.0	8,419
2024	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Black	60.1	58.7	61.4	6,636
1996	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Hispanic	44.0	42.4	45.6	4,308
2000	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Hispanic	44.3	42.8	45.8	5,100
2004	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Hispanic	47.2	45.8	48.5	6,089
2008	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Hispanic	49.9	48.6	51.1	6,925
2012	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Hispanic	48.0	46.7	49.2	7,812
2016	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Hispanic	47.6	46.4	48.7	8,703
2020	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Hispanic	53.7	52.6	54.9	8,163
2024	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Hispanic	50.6	49.4	51.8	8,064
1996	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Asian	45.8	43.3	48.3	1,950
2000	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Asian	43.2	40.8	45.6	2,174
2004	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Asian	44.7	42.6	46.9	2,909
2008	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Asian	47.2	45.3	49.2	3,349
2012	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Asian	47.1	45.2	49.0	3,640
2016	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Asian	48.9	47.2	50.7	4,079
2020	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Asian	59.3	57.6	61.1	3,860
2024	Presidential	Presidential Citizens	Asian	57.6	55.9	59.4	3,853
1994	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	White	51.0	50.6	51.4	78,425
1998	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	White	47.4	47.0	47.8	68,228
2002	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	White	49.1	48.7	49.5	79,499
2006	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	White	51.6	51.2	52.0	73,383
2010	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	White	48.6	48.2	49.0	72,006
2014	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	White	45.8	45.3	46.2	71,723
2018	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	White	57.5	57.0	57.9	64,983
2022	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	White	57.6	57.2	58.1	52,569
1994	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Black	39.0	37.9	40.1	9,512
1998	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Black	41.8	40.7	43.0	7,993
2002	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Black	42.7	41.6	43.8	9,310
2006	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Black	41.3	40.1	42.4	8,671
2010	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Black	44.0	42.9	45.1	9,097
2014	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Black	40.6	39.5	41.7	9,912
2018	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Black	51.4	50.2	52.6	8,773
2022	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Black	45.6	44.3	47.0	7,247
1994	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Hispanic	34.4	32.8	35.9	4,343
1998	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Hispanic	32.8	31.4	34.3	4,707
2002	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Hispanic	30.4	29.1	31.7	5,872
2006	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Hispanic	32.3	31.1	33.5	6,558
2010	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Hispanic	31.2	30.1	32.4	7,522
2014	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Hispanic	27.0	26.0	28.0	8,243
2018	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Hispanic	40.4	39.3	41.5	8,745
2022	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Hispanic	37.9	36.7	39.0	7,741
1994	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Asian	40.0	37.4	42.5	1,820
1998	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Asian	32.3	30.1	34.6	2,163
2002	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Asian	31.0	29.0	33.1	2,779
2006	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Asian	32.0	30.1	33.9	3,189
2010	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Asian	31.3	29.6	33.1	3,592
2014	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Asian	27.6	26.0	29.1	4,076
2018	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Asian	40.4	38.7	42.1	4,100
2022	Midterm	Midterm Citizens	Asian	40.2	38.5	42.0	3,755
1996	Presidential	Presidential All residents	White	59.6	59.2	60.0	70,039
2000	Presidential	Presidential All residents	White	60.6	60.2	61.1	67,287
2004	Presidential	Presidential All residents	White	65.8	65.4	66.1	77,710
2008	Presidential	Presidential All residents	White	64.8	64.4	65.2	72,783
2012	Presidential	Presidential All residents	White	63.0	62.6	63.4	72,615
2016	Presidential	Presidential All residents	White	64.1	63.7	64.5	70,249
2020	Presidential	Presidential All residents	White	69.8	69.3	70.2	60,390
2024	Presidential	Presidential All residents	White	69.2	68.8	69.7	53,001
1996	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Black	50.9	49.7	52.1	8,374
2000	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Black	54.2	53.1	55.4	8,698
2004	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Black	57.2	56.1	58.3	9,322
2008	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Black	61.7	60.6	62.8	9,100
2012	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Black	63.5	62.4	64.5	9,696
2016	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Black	56.5	55.4	57.6	10,002
2020	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Black	59.5	58.4	60.7	8,817
2024	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Black	56.1	54.8	57.5	7,056
1996	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Hispanic	26.7	25.6	27.9	6,969
2000	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Hispanic	26.7	25.7	27.7	8,382
2004	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Hispanic	28.0	27.0	28.9	10,174
2008	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Hispanic	31.6	30.6	32.5	10,871
2012	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Hispanic	31.8	30.9	32.7	11,846
2016	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Hispanic	32.5	31.6	33.4	12,622
2020	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Hispanic	38.8	37.8	39.7	11,259
2024	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Hispanic	35.2	34.3	36.2	11,556
1996	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Asian	25.9	24.2	27.6	3,200
2000	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Asian	25.1	23.5	26.7	3,515
2004	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Asian	30.5	28.8	32.1	4,104
2008	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Asian	32.1	30.6	33.6	4,779
2012	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Asian	31.8	30.3	33.2	5,217
2016	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Asian	34.1	32.7	35.5	5,752
2020	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Asian	42.7	41.2	44.2	5,206
2024	Presidential	Presidential All residents	Asian	41.9	40.4	43.4	5,207
1994	Midterm	Midterm All residents	White	50.1	49.7	50.5	79,878
1998	Midterm	Midterm All residents	White	46.5	46.1	46.9	69,529
2002	Midterm	Midterm All residents	White	48.0	47.6	48.4	81,060
2006	Midterm	Midterm All residents	White	50.5	50.1	50.9	74,748
2010	Midterm	Midterm All residents	White	47.8	47.4	48.2	73,169
2014	Midterm	Midterm All residents	White	45.0	44.6	45.4	72,831
2018	Midterm	Midterm All residents	White	56.5	56.1	56.9	65,927
2022	Midterm	Midterm All residents	White	56.6	56.1	57.1	53,341
1994	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Black	37.4	36.3	38.5	9,945
1998	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Black	40.0	38.9	41.2	8,365
2002	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Black	40.4	39.3	41.5	9,803
2006	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Black	39.2	38.1	40.3	9,119
2010	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Black	41.6	40.5	42.7	9,650
2014	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Black	38.6	37.5	39.7	10,387
2018	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Black	48.8	47.6	50.0	9,190
2022	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Black	43.4	42.2	44.7	7,574
1994	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Hispanic	20.2	19.1	21.2	7,222
1998	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Hispanic	20.0	19.1	21.0	7,656
2002	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Hispanic	18.9	18.0	19.7	9,416
2006	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Hispanic	19.3	18.5	20.1	10,912
2010	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Hispanic	20.5	19.7	21.3	11,500
2014	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Hispanic	18.4	17.7	19.2	12,156
2018	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Hispanic	28.5	27.6	29.4	12,237
2022	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Hispanic	26.7	25.8	27.6	10,928
1994	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Asian	21.8	20.2	23.4	3,258
1998	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Asian	19.2	17.7	20.6	3,439
2002	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Asian	19.2	17.9	20.6	4,207
2006	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Asian	21.7	20.3	23.0	4,533
2010	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Asian	21.8	20.5	23.2	5,006
2014	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Asian	19.5	18.4	20.7	5,606
2018	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Asian	28.8	27.5	30.2	5,621
2022	Midterm	Midterm All residents	Asian	29.7	28.3	31.1	4,957

Views: Presidential years, citizens (view = Presidential Citizens); Midterm years, citizens (view = Midterm Citizens); Presidential years, all residents (view = Presidential All residents); Midterm years, all residents (view = Midterm All residents).

Note: Presidential years and midterm years are separate views; the default is presidential years.

Note: Persons of another or multiple races are left out of the lines; they appear in the earlier figure. Turnout follows the Census Bureau convention: a respondent who did not answer the voting question counts as not voting.

Source: Current Population Survey, November Voting and Registration Supplement (IPUMS-CPS), 1994 to 2024; weighted (VOSUPPWT)

Data: vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/race_trend.json

Table 5. The turnout gap between citizens with a bachelor's degree and those without a high school diploma was wider in 2024 than in 1996

Percent of citizens 25 and older who reported voting, by educational attainment, presidential years 1996 to 2024 (the second button shows midterm years); 95% intervals from the Kish effective sample size

Year	Election type	Group	Turnout (%)	95% CI low	95% CI high	n respondents
1996	Presidential	Less than high school	41.9	41.0	42.9	11,692
2000	Presidential	Less than high school	42.0	41.0	43.1	9,858
2004	Presidential	Less than high school	42.2	41.1	43.3	10,233
2008	Presidential	Less than high school	41.6	40.4	42.8	8,467
2012	Presidential	Less than high school	41.2	40.0	42.5	7,512
2016	Presidential	Less than high school	37.3	36.0	38.6	6,908
2020	Presidential	Less than high school	43.7	42.1	45.2	5,000
2024	Presidential	Less than high school	39.1	37.4	40.8	4,008
1996	Presidential	High school graduate	55.1	54.5	55.8	25,825
2000	Presidential	High school graduate	56.0	55.3	56.7	24,610
2004	Presidential	High school graduate	59.0	58.3	59.6	28,012
2008	Presidential	High school graduate	57.0	56.3	57.7	26,066
2012	Presidential	High school graduate	56.0	55.3	56.7	25,733
2016	Presidential	High school graduate	53.9	53.2	54.6	24,702
2020	Presidential	High school graduate	58.0	57.3	58.8	21,412
2024	Presidential	High school graduate	55.3	54.4	56.1	18,383
1996	Presidential	Some college	67.0	66.3	67.8	18,879
2000	Presidential	Some college	67.3	66.6	68.0	19,364
2004	Presidential	Some college	71.6	70.9	72.3	22,991
2008	Presidential	Some college	70.6	69.9	71.3	22,758
2012	Presidential	Some college	67.6	66.9	68.3	23,322
2016	Presidential	Some college	66.0	65.3	66.7	23,525
2020	Presidential	Some college	71.1	70.4	71.8	20,091
2024	Presidential	Some college	69.2	68.4	70.0	17,338
1996	Presidential	Bachelor's degree or more	78.0	77.4	78.7	18,076
2000	Presidential	Bachelor's degree or more	78.1	77.5	78.8	19,070
2004	Presidential	Bachelor's degree or more	80.3	79.7	80.9	24,193
2008	Presidential	Bachelor's degree or more	79.3	78.7	79.9	24,625
2012	Presidential	Bachelor's degree or more	77.8	77.3	78.4	27,231
2016	Presidential	Bachelor's degree or more	77.1	76.6	77.7	28,684
2020	Presidential	Bachelor's degree or more	80.0	79.4	80.5	27,130
2024	Presidential	Bachelor's degree or more	79.6	79.0	80.2	25,742
1994	Midterm	Less than high school	34.1	33.2	34.9	14,134
1998	Midterm	Less than high school	33.4	32.4	34.4	10,963
2002	Midterm	Less than high school	31.0	30.0	32.0	10,837
2006	Midterm	Less than high school	30.4	29.3	31.4	9,376
2010	Midterm	Less than high school	28.3	27.2	29.5	8,070
2014	Midterm	Less than high school	25.1	24.0	26.2	7,697
2018	Midterm	Less than high school	30.0	28.7	31.3	6,074
2022	Midterm	Less than high school	29.2	27.7	30.8	4,251
1994	Midterm	High school graduate	46.7	46.1	47.4	29,451
1998	Midterm	High school graduate	42.7	42.0	43.4	25,556
2002	Midterm	High school graduate	43.4	42.7	44.0	29,364
2006	Midterm	High school graduate	43.9	43.3	44.6	27,085
2010	Midterm	High school graduate	41.3	40.6	42.0	26,354
2014	Midterm	High school graduate	37.2	36.6	37.9	25,791
2018	Midterm	High school graduate	44.9	44.2	45.6	23,004
2022	Midterm	High school graduate	43.9	43.1	44.7	18,919
1994	Midterm	Some college	56.9	56.2	57.7	21,201
1998	Midterm	Some college	53.6	52.8	54.4	19,236
2002	Midterm	Some college	53.2	52.5	54.0	23,691
2006	Midterm	Some college	54.4	53.7	55.2	22,620
2010	Midterm	Some college	50.7	50.0	51.4	23,320
2014	Midterm	Some college	46.5	45.8	47.2	23,955
2018	Midterm	Some college	57.7	56.9	58.4	22,009
2022	Midterm	Some college	55.8	55.0	56.6	17,609
1994	Midterm	Bachelor's degree or more	68.9	68.1	69.6	19,319
1998	Midterm	Bachelor's degree or more	62.5	61.8	63.3	18,893
2002	Midterm	Bachelor's degree or more	64.5	63.8	65.2	23,619
2006	Midterm	Bachelor's degree or more	65.3	64.7	66.0	24,389
2010	Midterm	Bachelor's degree or more	62.3	61.6	63.0	25,857
2014	Midterm	Bachelor's degree or more	57.6	57.0	58.3	28,265
2018	Midterm	Bachelor's degree or more	69.5	68.9	70.1	28,734
2022	Midterm	Bachelor's degree or more	67.7	67.0	68.3	25,233

Views: Presidential years (election = Presidential); Midterm years (election = Midterm).

Note: Presidential years and midterm years are separate views; the default is presidential years.

Note: Attainment is defined for adults 25 and older. Turnout follows the Census Bureau convention: a respondent who did not answer the voting question counts as not voting.

Source: Current Population Survey, November Voting and Registration Supplement (IPUMS-CPS), 1994 to 2024; weighted (VOSUPPWT)

Data: vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/education_trend.json

Table 6. Turnout rose with family income in every election, and the highest third voted at rates about the same distance above the lowest third in 2012 and 2024

Percent of citizens who reported voting, by within-year third of family income, presidential years 1996 to 2024 (the second button shows midterm years); 95% intervals from the Kish effective sample size

Year	Election type	Group	Turnout (%)	95% CI low	95% CI high	n respondents
1996	Presidential	Lowest third of family income	48.0	47.3	48.7	25,451
2000	Presidential	Lowest third of family income	49.5	48.8	50.2	27,793
2004	Presidential	Lowest third of family income	54.9	54.2	55.6	28,685
2008	Presidential	Lowest third of family income	57.0	56.3	57.7	27,450
2012	Presidential	Lowest third of family income	51.6	51.0	52.3	31,102
2016	Presidential	Lowest third of family income	50.2	49.6	50.8	32,737
2020	Presidential	Lowest third of family income	56.1	55.5	56.8	30,319
2024	Presidential	Lowest third of family income	54.3	53.6	55.0	26,368
1996	Presidential	Middle third	59.2	58.5	59.9	37,994
2000	Presidential	Middle third	63.0	62.3	63.7	29,923
2004	Presidential	Middle third	67.9	67.3	68.5	34,409
2008	Presidential	Middle third	68.7	68.0	69.3	26,322
2012	Presidential	Middle third	62.1	61.5	62.7	37,036
2016	Presidential	Middle third	62.5	61.9	63.1	42,544
2020	Presidential	Middle third	67.7	67.1	68.3	33,174
2024	Presidential	Middle third	67.2	66.6	67.8	35,210
1996	Presidential	Highest third	71.8	71.2	72.4	24,604
2000	Presidential	Highest third	72.7	72.1	73.4	22,500
2004	Presidential	Highest third	78.2	77.6	78.7	30,412
2008	Presidential	Highest third	77.9	77.3	78.5	33,247
2012	Presidential	Highest third	71.7	71.1	72.3	41,910
2016	Presidential	Highest third	71.4	70.9	72.0	35,668
2020	Presidential	Highest third	76.5	75.9	77.1	36,140
2024	Presidential	Highest third	74.5	73.9	75.1	28,984
1994	Midterm	Lowest third of family income	37.6	37.0	38.2	32,705
1998	Midterm	Lowest third of family income	36.9	36.3	37.6	27,133
2002	Midterm	Lowest third of family income	37.9	37.3	38.6	30,713
2006	Midterm	Lowest third of family income	39.6	38.9	40.3	25,387
2010	Midterm	Lowest third of family income	35.8	35.2	36.4	32,675
2014	Midterm	Lowest third of family income	32.7	32.1	33.2	35,868
2018	Midterm	Lowest third of family income	43.3	42.6	43.9	34,941
2022	Midterm	Lowest third of family income	41.8	41.1	42.5	29,857
1994	Midterm	Middle third	48.9	48.3	49.5	36,492
1998	Midterm	Middle third	46.5	45.8	47.1	31,286
2002	Midterm	Middle third	48.2	47.5	48.8	35,262
2006	Midterm	Middle third	51.9	51.2	52.6	31,974
2010	Midterm	Middle third	45.7	45.1	46.3	37,807
2014	Midterm	Middle third	42.9	42.3	43.4	43,489
2018	Midterm	Middle third	54.1	53.5	54.7	35,374
2022	Midterm	Middle third	53.3	52.7	54.0	35,033
1994	Midterm	Highest third	60.8	60.2	61.5	34,235
1998	Midterm	Highest third	56.0	55.3	56.7	27,870
2002	Midterm	Highest third	57.3	56.7	58.0	29,617
2006	Midterm	Highest third	60.2	59.6	60.9	32,257
2010	Midterm	Highest third	55.1	54.5	55.7	39,511
2014	Midterm	Highest third	50.3	49.7	50.9	33,852
2018	Midterm	Highest third	62.9	62.3	63.5	36,649
2022	Midterm	Highest third	61.5	60.8	62.2	25,708

Views: Presidential years (election = Presidential); Midterm years (election = Midterm).

Note: Presidential years and midterm years are separate views; the default is presidential years.

Note: Thirds are formed within each year from the family-income brackets of citizens; a bracket that straddles a cut-off is split in proportion. Brackets change across decades, so no fixed dollar groups are used. Turnout follows the Census Bureau convention: a respondent who did not answer the voting question counts as not voting.

Source: Current Population Survey, November Voting and Registration Supplement (IPUMS-CPS), 1994 to 2024; weighted (VOSUPPWT)

Data: vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/income_trend.json

Table 7. Net of age, education and family income, the White-Black turnout difference was 3.4 points in 2024 and the Asian-White difference did not shrink

Difference in turnout between the higher-turnout and lower-turnout group, percentage points, citizens 25 and older, 2024 (buttons show other elections); one characteristic alone against all four together; 95% intervals from standard errors clustered by state

Year	Contrast	One characteristic alone (points)	95% CI low	95% CI high	All four together (points)	95% CI low (adjusted)	95% CI high (adjusted)	n respondents
2024	Ages 65 and older minus ages 25 to 44	+14.5	13.2	15.7	+18.2	17.0	19.5	65,471
2024	White minus Black	+9.7	7.6	11.8	+3.4	1.6	5.3	65,471
2024	White minus Hispanic	+18.8	16.5	21.2	+10.5	8.1	12.9	65,471
2024	White minus Asian	+13.1	11.4	14.8	+14.6	13.0	16.1	65,471
2024	Bachelor's degree minus less than high school	+40.5	36.5	44.6	+34.5	30.8	38.2	65,471
2024	Bachelor's degree minus high school graduate	+24.3	22.7	26.0	+20.8	19.1	22.4	65,471
2024	Highest minus lowest third of family income	+20.3	18.6	22.0	+13.6	12.3	14.9	65,471
2020	Ages 65 and older minus ages 25 to 44	+11.9	10.1	13.7	+15.5	13.8	17.1	73,633
2020	White minus Black	+7.4	5.2	9.7	+0.9	−1.0	2.9	73,633
2020	White minus Hispanic	+15.9	14.4	17.5	+7.6	6.0	9.1	73,633
2020	White minus Asian	+12.5	9.9	15.2	+14.1	11.8	16.4	73,633
2020	Bachelor's degree minus less than high school	+36.3	33.6	38.9	+30.8	27.8	33.8	73,633
2020	Bachelor's degree minus high school graduate	+21.9	20.1	23.8	+18.7	16.9	20.5	73,633
2020	Highest minus lowest third of family income	+20.1	18.7	21.5	+13.2	12.0	14.4	73,633
2016	Ages 65 and older minus ages 25 to 44	+14.4	12.9	16.0	+19.2	18.0	20.5	83,819
2016	White minus Black	+5.0	2.5	7.6	−2.6	−5.2	−0.1	83,819
2016	White minus Hispanic	+16.7	13.6	19.8	+7.2	4.9	9.5	83,819
2016	White minus Asian	+17.1	13.9	20.2	+18.1	15.7	20.4	83,819
2016	Bachelor's degree minus less than high school	+39.8	37.4	42.2	+35.0	32.2	37.9	83,819
2016	Bachelor's degree minus high school graduate	+23.3	21.9	24.6	+20.6	19.3	21.8	83,819
2016	Highest minus lowest third of family income	+21.6	20.5	22.7	+13.9	12.9	14.8	83,819
2022	Ages 65 and older minus ages 25 to 44	+22.6	20.8	24.4	+26.9	25.2	28.6	66,012
2022	White minus Black	+11.6	9.1	14.0	+3.9	1.3	6.6	66,012
2022	White minus Hispanic	+18.7	16.3	21.1	+8.8	6.2	11.5	66,012
2022	White minus Asian	+17.9	14.7	21.1	+19.4	17.0	21.7	66,012
2022	Bachelor's degree minus less than high school	+38.4	35.4	41.5	+34.1	31.1	37.0	66,012
2022	Bachelor's degree minus high school graduate	+23.8	21.9	25.7	+21.0	19.3	22.7	66,012
2022	Highest minus lowest third of family income	+19.9	18.2	21.7	+13.9	12.6	15.2	66,012

Views: 2024 (year = 2024); 2020 (year = 2020); 2016 (year = 2016); 2022 (year = 2022).

Note: Weighted linear probability models of voting (0 or 1) with the Census convention, one model per election and specification, on citizens 25 and older with family income. Income enters as thirds, with a bracket that straddles a cut-off entered as two rows with fractional weights. Intervals are normal approximations with standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters) and omit the within-state design effect.

Note: The age contrast is ages 65 and older against ages 25 to 44; adults under 25 are not in the sample because attainment is defined from 25.

Note: The size column counts persons; the models use more rows because a person whose income bracket straddles a cut-off enters as two rows.

Source: Current Population Survey, November Voting and Registration Supplement (IPUMS-CPS), 2024, 2020, 2016 and 2022; weighted (VOSUPPWT); weighted linear probability models

Data: vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/adjusted_gaps.json

Table 8. Voting by mail rose to 43.0% of voters in 2020 and fell to 29.0% in 2024, while voting in person before Election Day reached 30.7%

Percent of persons who reported voting, by method and timing, presidential years 1996 to 2024 (the second button shows midterm years); 95% intervals from the Kish effective sample size

Year	Election type	Method	Share of voters (%)	95% CI low	95% CI high	n respondents
2004	Presidential	In person on Election Day	79.0	78.7	79.4	63,052
2008	Presidential	In person on Election Day	68.9	68.5	69.3	59,975
2012	Presidential	In person on Election Day	66.8	66.4	67.2	59,597
2016	Presidential	In person on Election Day	59.5	59.1	60.0	58,533
2020	Presidential	In person on Election Day	30.4	29.9	30.8	55,170
2024	Presidential	In person on Election Day	39.6	39.1	40.1	48,387
2004	Presidential	In person before Election Day	7.8	7.5	8.0	63,052
2008	Presidential	In person before Election Day	14.2	13.9	14.6	59,975
2012	Presidential	In person before Election Day	14.2	13.9	14.5	59,597
2016	Presidential	In person before Election Day	18.9	18.6	19.3	58,533
2020	Presidential	In person before Election Day	26.0	25.6	26.4	55,170
2024	Presidential	In person before Election Day	30.7	30.3	31.2	48,387
1996	Presidential	By mail	7.8	7.6	8.1	50,025
2000	Presidential	By mail	10.1	9.8	10.4	50,010
2004	Presidential	By mail	12.9	12.6	13.2	63,052
2008	Presidential	By mail	16.4	16.0	16.7	59,975
2012	Presidential	By mail	18.5	18.1	18.8	59,597
2016	Presidential	By mail	20.9	20.5	21.3	58,533
2020	Presidential	By mail	43.0	42.5	43.4	55,170
2024	Presidential	By mail	29.0	28.5	29.4	48,387
2006	Midterm	In person on Election Day	80.1	79.7	80.5	47,175
2010	Midterm	In person on Election Day	73.0	72.5	73.5	44,802
2014	Midterm	In person on Election Day	68.4	67.9	68.9	42,559
2018	Midterm	In person on Election Day	59.6	59.1	60.1	48,337
2022	Midterm	In person on Election Day	49.5	48.9	50.1	39,280
2006	Midterm	In person before Election Day	5.8	5.6	6.0	47,175
2010	Midterm	In person before Election Day	8.3	8.0	8.6	44,802
2014	Midterm	In person before Election Day	10.2	9.9	10.5	42,559
2018	Midterm	In person before Election Day	16.6	16.2	17.0	48,337
2022	Midterm	In person before Election Day	18.0	17.6	18.5	39,280
1998	Midterm	By mail	8.4	8.1	8.7	39,512
2002	Midterm	By mail	10.6	10.3	10.9	47,897
2006	Midterm	By mail	13.7	13.4	14.1	47,175
2010	Midterm	By mail	18.1	17.7	18.5	44,802
2014	Midterm	By mail	20.8	20.4	21.3	42,559
2018	Midterm	By mail	23.1	22.7	23.6	48,337
2022	Midterm	By mail	31.8	31.2	32.3	39,280

Views: Presidential years (election = Presidential); Midterm years (election = Midterm).

Note: Presidential years and midterm years are separate views; the default is presidential years.

Note: The shares for 2020 and 2024 match the Census Bureau tabulations of the same supplement to the printed decimal; the checks are listed in the methods note. The Election Assistance Commission publishes administrative percentages that do not sum to the whole and give higher early in-person shares than the survey in 2020 and 2024, while its counts of early in-person ballots agree with the survey's weighted counts within a few percent; the methods note gives both.

Source: Current Population Survey, November Voting and Registration Supplement (IPUMS-CPS), 1996 to 2024 (timing from 2004); weighted (VOSUPPWT)

Data: vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/vote_method.json

Table 9. The CPS count of reported voters exceeded the ballots counted for president by 6.0% to 11.6% through 2000 and was within 3% of them from 2004 to 2024

Millions of persons: ballots counted for president against the CPS weighted number of adults 18 and older who reported voting, presidential years 1976 to 2024; the CPS interval is the 95% interval from the Kish effective sample size

Election	Ballots counted for president (millions)	CPS reported voters (millions)	95% CI low (millions)	95% CI high (millions)	n respondents
1976	81.6	86.7	86.2	87.2	89,090
1980	86.5	94.8	94.3	95.3	123,591
1984	92.7	101.9	101.3	102.4	110,115
1988	91.6	102.2	101.6	102.9	102,945
1992	104.6	113.4	112.8	114.0	105,987
1996	96.4	105.0	104.3	105.7	89,609
2000	105.6	111.9	111.2	112.7	88,884
2004	122.3	125.7	125.0	126.5	103,696
2008	131.4	131.1	130.4	131.9	99,556
2012	129.1	132.9	132.1	133.8	101,568
2016	136.8	137.5	136.7	138.4	100,946
2020	158.5	154.6	153.7	155.6	87,589
2024	155.4	154.3	153.3	155.3	78,650

Note: The ballots counted for president are full counts and have no interval. The CPS interval treats the adult population total as fixed and uses the Kish interval on the share who voted.

Note: The election column names the presidential election year.

Source: Current Population Survey, November Voting and Registration Supplement (IPUMS-CPS), 1976 to 2024, weighted (VOSUPPWT); MIT Election Data and Science Lab state presidential returns, 1976 to 2024, full counts

Data: vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/cps_vs_certified.json

All estimates

Every fact in facts.json (192), sorted by id. The same values as JSON: facts.json.

Fact id	Value	Unit	Estimand	Population	Period	Interval	n	Weights	Source	Note
adj_age65_2024	18.2	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with age, race and ethnicity, education and family income together: Ages 65 and older minus ages 25 to 44	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 17.0 to 19.5	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons.
adj_asian_2024	14.6	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with age, race and ethnicity, education and family income together: White minus Asian	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 13.0 to 16.1	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons.
adj_ba_lths_2024	34.5	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with age, race and ethnicity, education and family income together: Bachelor's degree minus less than high school	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 30.8 to 38.2	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons.
adj_black_2016	−2.6	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with age, race and ethnicity, education and family income together: White minus Black	citizens 25 and older	2016 presidential election	95% CI −5.2 to −0.1	83,819	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons.
adj_black_2020	0.9	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with age, race and ethnicity, education and family income together: White minus Black	citizens 25 and older	2020 presidential election	95% CI −1.0 to 2.9	73,633	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons.
adj_black_2024	3.4	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with age, race and ethnicity, education and family income together: White minus Black	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 1.6 to 5.3	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons.
adj_hisp_2024	10.5	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with age, race and ethnicity, education and family income together: White minus Hispanic	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 8.1 to 12.9	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons.
adj_inc_2024	13.6	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with age, race and ethnicity, education and family income together: Highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 12.3 to 14.9	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons.
amgdiff_age_2022	28.2	percentage points	difference in the weighted share of the registered who voted: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens aged 65 and older and citizens aged 18 to 29 who were registered	2022	95% CI 26.7 to 29.6	22,584	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
amgdiff_age_2024	10.8	percentage points	difference in the weighted share of the registered who voted: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens aged 65 and older and citizens aged 18 to 29 who were registered	2024	95% CI 9.7 to 11.9	24,507	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
amgdiff_educ_2024	18.1	percentage points	difference in the weighted share of the registered who voted: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more and without a high school diploma who were registered	2024	95% CI 16.0 to 20.2	24,064	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
anes_2020	77.3%	percent	weighted share who reported voting	ANES respondents who answered the turnout item and have a post-election weight	2020	95% CI 75.9% to 78.6%	7,446	weight_postelection (VCF9999)	ANES Cumulative Data File
anes_2024	78.9%	percent	weighted share who reported voting	ANES respondents who answered the turnout item and have a post-election weight	2024	95% CI 77.3% to 80.5%	4,954	weight_postelection (VCF9999)	ANES Cumulative Data File
censuscit_1992	67.7%	percent	published weighted share who reported voting (Census Bureau Table A-1), nonresponse counted as not voting	citizens 18 and older, as the Census Bureau defines them from the supplement's own citizenship item	1992 presidential election			VOSUPPWT, as published by the Census Bureau	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	A published figure with no interval; the extract has no citizenship item before 1994 and cannot reproduce it.
chg_age_1996_2008	−10.3	percentage points	change in the turnout gap between the two years (difference of two differences), gap = citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	1996 to 2008	95% CI −11.9 to −8.7	67,347	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
chg_age_2014_2018	−9.0	percentage points	change in the turnout gap between the two years (difference of two differences), gap = citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	2014 to 2018	95% CI −10.5 to −7.5	76,514	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
chg_age_2018_2022	+5.1	percentage points	change in the turnout gap between the two years (difference of two differences), gap = citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	2018 to 2022	95% CI 3.5 to 6.7	70,196	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
chg_asian_2004_2024	−9.6	percentage points	change in the turnout gap between the two years (difference of two differences), gap = White non-Hispanic minus Asian or Pacific Islander non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	2004 to 2024	95% CI −12.5 to −6.8	135,208	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
chg_ba_hs_1996_2024	+1.4	percentage points	change in the turnout gap between the two years (difference of two differences), gap = bachelor's degree or more minus high school diploma only	citizens 25 and older	1996 to 2024	95% CI 0.1 to 2.8	88,026	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
chg_ba_lths_1996_2024	+4.5	percentage points	change in the turnout gap between the two years (difference of two differences), gap = bachelor's degree or more minus no high school diploma	citizens 25 and older	1996 to 2024	95% CI 2.3 to 6.6	59,518	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
chg_ba_lths_2020_2024	+4.3	percentage points	change in the turnout gap between the two years (difference of two differences), gap = bachelor's degree or more minus no high school diploma	citizens 25 and older	2020 to 2024	95% CI 1.8 to 6.7	61,880	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
chg_black_2012_2024	+12.9	percentage points	change in the turnout gap between the two years (difference of two differences), gap = White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	2012 to 2024	95% CI 11.1 to 14.7	139,565	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
chg_hisp_1996_2024	+3.1	percentage points	change in the turnout gap between the two years (difference of two differences), gap = White non-Hispanic minus Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	1996 to 2024	95% CI 1.0 to 5.2	133,388	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
chg_inc_1996_2008	−2.9	percentage points	change in the turnout gap between the two years (difference of two differences), gap = highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 18 and older	1996 to 2008	95% CI −4.2 to −1.6	110,752	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
chg_inc_2012_2024	+0.2	percentage points	change in the turnout gap between the two years (difference of two differences), gap = highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 18 and older	2012 to 2024	95% CI −1.1 to 1.4	128,364	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
cit_1994	48.4%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	1994 midterm election	95% CI 48.0% to 48.8%	95,272	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
cit_1996	58.4%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	1996 presidential election	95% CI 58.0% to 58.7%	84,090	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
cit_2004	63.8%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2004 presidential election	95% CI 63.5% to 64.2%	96,452	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
cit_2008	63.6%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2008 presidential election	95% CI 63.3% to 64.0%	92,360	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
cit_2012	61.8%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2012 presidential election	95% CI 61.5% to 62.2%	94,311	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
cit_2014	41.9%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2014 midterm election	95% CI 41.6% to 42.3%	96,267	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
cit_2016	61.4%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2016 presidential election	95% CI 61.0% to 61.7%	93,794	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
cit_2018	53.4%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2018 midterm election	95% CI 53.1% to 53.8%	88,749	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
cit_2020	66.8%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2020 presidential election	95% CI 66.4% to 67.1%	81,898	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
cit_2022	52.2%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2022 midterm election	95% CI 51.8% to 52.6%	73,083	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
cit_2024	65.3%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 64.9% to 65.7%	72,590	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
early_2004	7.8%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (in person before election day)	persons who voted	2004 presidential election	95% CI 7.5% to 8.0%	63,052	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
early_2016	18.9%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (in person before election day)	persons who voted	2016 presidential election	95% CI 18.6% to 19.3%	58,533	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
early_2020	26.0%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (in person before election day)	persons who voted	2020 presidential election	95% CI 25.6% to 26.4%	55,170	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
early_2022	18.0%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (in person before election day)	persons who voted	2022 midterm election	95% CI 17.6% to 18.5%	39,280	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
early_2024	30.7%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (in person before election day)	persons who voted	2024 presidential election	95% CI 30.3% to 31.2%	48,387	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
ed_2004	79.0%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (in person on election day)	persons who voted	2004 presidential election	95% CI 78.7% to 79.4%	63,052	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
ed_2016	59.5%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (in person on election day)	persons who voted	2016 presidential election	95% CI 59.1% to 60.0%	58,533	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
ed_2020	30.4%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (in person on election day)	persons who voted	2020 presidential election	95% CI 29.9% to 30.8%	55,170	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
ed_2024	39.6%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (in person on election day)	persons who voted	2024 presidential election	95% CI 39.1% to 40.1%	48,387	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_age_1994	37.1	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	1994 midterm election	95% CI 36.0 to 38.2	37,385	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_age_1996	29.5	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	1996 presidential election	95% CI 28.4 to 30.7	32,310	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_age_2008	19.3	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	2008 presidential election	95% CI 18.1 to 20.4	35,037	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_age_2012	27.0	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	2012 presidential election	95% CI 25.9 to 28.1	37,249	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_age_2014	39.5	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	2014 midterm election	95% CI 38.5 to 40.5	39,114	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_age_2018	30.6	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	2018 midterm election	95% CI 29.4 to 31.7	37,400	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_age_2020	20.4	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	2020 presidential election	95% CI 19.2 to 21.5	35,593	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_age_2022	35.7	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	2022 midterm election	95% CI 34.5 to 36.8	32,796	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_age_2024	23.9	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 22.7 to 25.2	33,208	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_asian_2004	22.5	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Asian or Pacific Islander non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	2004 presidential election	95% CI 20.3 to 24.7	79,118	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_asian_2020	11.6	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Asian or Pacific Islander non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	2020 presidential election	95% CI 9.8 to 13.4	63,415	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_asian_2024	12.9	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Asian or Pacific Islander non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 11.0 to 14.7	56,090	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_ba_hs_1996	22.9	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree minus those with a high school diploma only	citizens 25 and older	1996 presidential election	95% CI 21.9 to 23.8	43,901	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_ba_hs_2024	24.3	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree minus those with a high school diploma only	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 23.3 to 25.3	44,125	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_ba_lths_1996	36.1	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older	1996 presidential election	95% CI 34.9 to 37.3	29,768	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_ba_lths_1998	29.1	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older	1998 midterm election	95% CI 27.9 to 30.4	29,856	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_ba_lths_2008	37.7	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older	2008 presidential election	95% CI 36.4 to 39.0	33,092	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_ba_lths_2014	32.5	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older	2014 midterm election	95% CI 31.3 to 33.8	35,962	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_ba_lths_2020	36.3	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older	2020 presidential election	95% CI 34.6 to 37.9	32,130	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_ba_lths_2022	38.4	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older	2022 midterm election	95% CI 36.7 to 40.1	29,484	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_ba_lths_2024	40.5	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 38.7 to 42.4	29,750	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_black_1996	7.7	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	1996 presidential election	95% CI 6.5 to 9.0	76,814	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_black_2008	0.9	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	2008 presidential election	95% CI −0.3 to 2.1	80,104	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_black_2012	−2.5	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	2012 presidential election	95% CI −3.6 to −1.4	80,692	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_black_2016	5.7	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	2016 presidential election	95% CI 4.5 to 6.9	78,720	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_black_2020	8.1	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	2020 presidential election	95% CI 6.9 to 9.4	67,974	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_black_2024	10.4	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 9.0 to 11.8	58,873	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_hisp_1996	16.8	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	1996 presidential election	95% CI 15.1 to 18.4	73,087	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_hisp_2024	19.9	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 18.6 to 21.2	60,301	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_hisp_res_2024	34.0	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout, White non-Hispanic minus Hispanic residents (noncitizens counted as not voting)	all residents 18 and older	2024	95% CI 32.9 to 35.0	64,557	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_inc_1996	23.8	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 18 and older	1996 presidential election	95% CI 22.9 to 24.7	50,055	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_inc_1998	19.1	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 18 and older	1998 midterm election	95% CI 18.1 to 20.0	55,003	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_inc_2008	20.9	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 18 and older	2008 presidential election	95% CI 20.0 to 21.8	60,697	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_inc_2012	20.1	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 18 and older	2012 presidential election	95% CI 19.2 to 20.9	73,012	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_inc_2014	17.7	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 18 and older	2014 midterm election	95% CI 16.8 to 18.5	69,720	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_inc_2018	19.7	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 18 and older	2018 midterm election	95% CI 18.8 to 20.5	71,590	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_inc_2022	19.7	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 18 and older	2022 midterm election	95% CI 18.7 to 20.7	55,565	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
gap_inc_2024	20.2	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 19.3 to 21.1	55,352	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
inc_nonrep_1996	11.4%	percent	weighted share who did not report a family-income bracket	citizens 18 and older	1996		84,090	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
inc_nonrep_2008	20.6%	percent	weighted share who did not report a family-income bracket	citizens 18 and older	2008		92,360	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
inc_turn_nonrep_2008	47.3%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older who did not report family income	2008		18,033	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
inc_turn_rep_2008	67.9%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older who reported family income	2008		74,327	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
mail_1996	7.8%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by mail	persons who voted	1996 presidential election	95% CI 7.6% to 8.1%	50,025	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
mail_2004	12.9%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (by mail)	persons who voted	2004 presidential election	95% CI 12.6% to 13.2%	63,052	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
mail_2016	20.9%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (by mail)	persons who voted	2016 presidential election	95% CI 20.5% to 21.3%	58,533	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
mail_2018	23.1%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (by mail)	persons who voted	2018 midterm election	95% CI 22.7% to 23.6%	48,337	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
mail_2020	43.0%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (by mail)	persons who voted	2020 presidential election	95% CI 42.5% to 43.4%	55,170	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
mail_2022	31.8%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (by mail)	persons who voted	2022 midterm election	95% CI 31.2% to 32.3%	39,280	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
mail_2024	29.0%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by method (by mail)	persons who voted	2024 presidential election	95% CI 28.5% to 29.4%	48,387	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
mail_a1824_2020	39.9%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by mail	persons aged 18 to 24 who voted	2020 presidential election	95% CI 38.2% to 41.6%	4,190	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
mail_a1824_2024	26.3%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by mail	persons aged 18 to 24 who voted	2024 presidential election	95% CI 24.7% to 28.0%	3,419	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
mail_a65_2020	53.6%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by mail	persons aged 65 and older who voted	2020 presidential election	95% CI 52.7% to 54.5%	15,856	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
mail_a65_2024	36.8%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by mail	persons aged 65 and older who voted	2024 presidential election	95% CI 35.9% to 37.6%	15,714	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
n_adults	2,494,218	respondents	count of person records	adults 18 and older with a positive supplement weight	1976 to 2024			none (count of records)	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
n_citizens	1,422,311	respondents	count of person records	citizens 18 and older	1994 to 2024			none (count of records)	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
noncit_1994	6.8%	percent	weighted share who are not US citizens	adults 18 and older	1994	95% CI 6.7% to 7.0%	101,630	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
noncit_2024	9.3%	percent	weighted share who are not US citizens	adults 18 and older	2024	95% CI 9.1% to 9.5%	78,650	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
noncit_asian_2024	27.3%	percent	weighted share who are not US citizens	Asian or Pacific Islander non-Hispanic adults 18 and older	2024			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
noncit_hisp_1994	40.8%	percent	weighted share who are not US citizens	Hispanic adults 18 and older	1994			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
noncit_hisp_2024	30.3%	percent	weighted share who are not US citizens	Hispanic adults 18 and older	2024			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
noncit_white_1994	1.8%	percent	weighted share who are not US citizens	White non-Hispanic adults 18 and older	1994			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
noncit_white_2024	1.8%	percent	weighted share who are not US citizens	White non-Hispanic adults 18 and older	2024			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nr_2004	10.8%	percent	weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	citizens 18 and older	2004		96,452	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nr_2008	13.8%	percent	weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	citizens 18 and older	2008		92,360	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nr_2018	17.7%	percent	weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	citizens 18 and older	2018		88,749	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nr_2020	15.7%	percent	weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	citizens 18 and older	2020		81,898	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nr_2024	14.1%	percent	weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	citizens 18 and older	2024		72,590	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nr_a1829_2024	18.0%	percent	weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	citizens aged 18 to 29	2024 presidential election	95% CI 17.3% to 18.8%	12,303	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nr_a65_2024	12.1%	percent	weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	citizens aged 65 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 11.6% to 12.6%	20,905	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nr_black_2024	17.6%	percent	weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	Black non-Hispanic citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 16.5% to 18.6%	6,636	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nr_hisp_2024	17.0%	percent	weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	Hispanic citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 16.1% to 17.9%	8,064	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nr_white_2024	12.6%	percent	weighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)	White non-Hispanic citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 12.2% to 12.9%	52,237	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nt_2020	69.0%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by mail or in person before Election Day	persons who voted	2020 presidential election	95% CI 68.5% to 69.4%	55,170	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
nt_2024	59.7%	percent	weighted share of all persons who reported voting, by mail or in person before Election Day	persons who voted	2024 presidential election	95% CI 59.2% to 60.2%	48,387	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
over_1988	+11.6%	percent of ballots counted for president	CPS weighted count of persons who reported voting, relative to the certified presidential total	voters in the CPS estimate, all residents 18 and older	1988	95% CI 10.9% to 12.3%	102,945	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	The interval treats the adult population total as fixed and uses the Kish interval on the share who voted.
over_2004	+2.8%	percent of ballots counted for president	CPS weighted count of persons who reported voting, relative to the certified presidential total	voters in the CPS estimate, all residents 18 and older	2004	95% CI 2.2% to 3.4%	103,696	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	The interval treats the adult population total as fixed and uses the Kish interval on the share who voted.
over_2020	−2.5%	percent of ballots counted for president	CPS weighted count of persons who reported voting, relative to the certified presidential total	voters in the CPS estimate, all residents 18 and older	2020	95% CI −3.0% to −1.9%	87,589	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	The interval treats the adult population total as fixed and uses the Kish interval on the share who voted.
over_absmax_0424	3%	percent of ballots counted for president	largest absolute difference between the CPS count of reported voters and the certified presidential total	voters in the CPS estimate, all residents 18 and older	2004 to 2024 presidential elections			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
over_max_7600	11.6%	percent of ballots counted for president	largest excess of the CPS count over the certified presidential total	voters in the CPS estimate, all residents 18 and older	1976 to 2000 presidential elections			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
over_min_7600	6.0%	percent of ballots counted for president	smallest excess of the CPS count over the certified presidential total	voters in the CPS estimate, all residents 18 and older	1976 to 2000 presidential elections			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
pm_1996	13.1	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout, presidential year minus the next midterm	citizens 18 and older	1996 presidential minus 1998 midterm	95% CI 12.5 to 13.6	168,166	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
pm_2012	19.9	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout, presidential year minus the next midterm	citizens 18 and older	2012 presidential minus 2014 midterm	95% CI 19.4 to 20.4	190,578	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
pm_2016	7.9	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout, presidential year minus the next midterm	citizens 18 and older	2016 presidential minus 2018 midterm	95% CI 7.4 to 8.5	182,543	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
pm_2020	14.6	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout, presidential year minus the next midterm	citizens 18 and older	2020 presidential minus 2022 midterm	95% CI 14.0 to 15.1	154,981	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
pre_na_hisp_1980	32.2%	percent	weighted share of adults outside the voting-question universe	Hispanic adults 18 and older	1980			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
pre_na_hisp_1992	40.2%	percent	weighted share of adults outside the voting-question universe	Hispanic adults 18 and older	1992			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
pre_na_white_1980	1.7%	percent	weighted share of adults outside the voting-question universe	White non-Hispanic adults 18 and older	1980			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
pre_na_white_1992	1.9%	percent	weighted share of adults outside the voting-question universe	White non-Hispanic adults 18 and older	1992			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
raw_age65_2024	14.5	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with this characteristic alone: Ages 65 and older minus ages 25 to 44	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 13.2 to 15.7	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons; the models use more rows because a person whose income bracket straddles a cut-off enters as two rows with fractional weights.
raw_asian_2024	13.1	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with this characteristic alone: White minus Asian	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 11.4 to 14.8	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons; the models use more rows because a person whose income bracket straddles a cut-off enters as two rows with fractional weights.
raw_ba_lths_2024	40.5	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with this characteristic alone: Bachelor's degree minus less than high school	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 36.5 to 44.6	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons; the models use more rows because a person whose income bracket straddles a cut-off enters as two rows with fractional weights.
raw_black_2024	9.7	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with this characteristic alone: White minus Black	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 7.6 to 11.8	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons; the models use more rows because a person whose income bracket straddles a cut-off enters as two rows with fractional weights.
raw_hisp_2024	18.8	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with this characteristic alone: White minus Hispanic	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 16.5 to 21.2	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons; the models use more rows because a person whose income bracket straddles a cut-off enters as two rows with fractional weights.
raw_inc_2024	20.3	percentage points	difference in turnout from a weighted linear probability model with this characteristic alone: Highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 25 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 18.6 to 22.0	65,471	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Interval from standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters), a normal approximation. The size is the number of persons; the models use more rows because a person whose income bracket straddles a cut-off enters as two rows with fractional weights.
reg_ba_2024	84.5%	percent	weighted share registered (voted, or reported being registered; nonresponse counted as not registered)	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more	2024 presidential election	95% CI 84.0% to 85.0%	25,742	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
reg_lths_2024	51.4%	percent	weighted share registered (voted, or reported being registered; nonresponse counted as not registered)	citizens 25 and older without a high school diploma	2024 presidential election	95% CI 49.6% to 53.1%	4,008	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
regdiff_educ_2024	33.2	percentage points	difference in the weighted registered share: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more and without a high school diploma	2024	95% CI 31.3 to 35.0	29,750	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
regorder_hi_educ_2024	77%	percent of the turnout difference	upper end of the registration share across the two orders of the split, citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more and without a high school diploma	2024			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
regorder_lo_educ_2024	62%	percent of the turnout difference	lower end of the registration share across the two orders of the split, citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more and without a high school diploma	2024			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
regshare_age_2020	72%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens aged 65 and older and citizens aged 18 to 29	2020	95% CI 69% to 74%	35,593	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Seeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded.
regshare_age_2022	48%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens aged 65 and older and citizens aged 18 to 29	2022	95% CI 46% to 50%	32,796	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Seeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded.
regshare_age_2024	68%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens aged 65 and older and citizens aged 18 to 29	2024	95% CI 65% to 71%	33,208	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Seeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded.
regshare_black_2020	83%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	White and Black non-Hispanic citizens	2020	95% CI 76% to 91%	67,974	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Seeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded.
regshare_black_2022	53%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	White and Black non-Hispanic citizens	2022	95% CI 47% to 60%	59,816	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Seeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded.
regshare_black_2024	62%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	White and Black non-Hispanic citizens	2024	95% CI 55% to 68%	58,873	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Seeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded.
regshare_educ_2024	70%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more and without a high school diploma	2024	95% CI 67% to 73%	29,750	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Seeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded.
regshare_hisp_2024	70%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), White non-Hispanic minus Hispanic citizens	White non-Hispanic and Hispanic citizens	2024	95% CI 67% to 74%	60,301	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Seeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded.
regshare_inc_2022	62%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens in the highest and lowest thirds of family income	2022	95% CI 59% to 64%	55,565	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Seeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded.
regshare_inc_2024	69%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens in the highest and lowest thirds of family income	2024	95% CI 67% to 71%	55,352	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	Seeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded.
regshare_sr_age_2024	65%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration among respondents only (nonrespondents dropped from the registered share and from turnout), citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens aged 65 and older and citizens aged 18 to 29 who answered the voting question	2024		28,718	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	A point estimate without an interval.
regshare_sr_black_2020	61%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration among respondents only (nonrespondents dropped from the registered share and from turnout), White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	White and Black non-Hispanic citizens who answered the voting question	2020		57,946	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	A point estimate without an interval.
regshare_sr_black_2022	38%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration among respondents only (nonrespondents dropped from the registered share and from turnout), White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	White and Black non-Hispanic citizens who answered the voting question	2022		50,856	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	A point estimate without an interval.
regshare_sr_black_2024	44%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration among respondents only (nonrespondents dropped from the registered share and from turnout), White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	White and Black non-Hispanic citizens who answered the voting question	2024		51,535	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	A point estimate without an interval.
regshare_sr_educ_2024	67%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration among respondents only (nonrespondents dropped from the registered share and from turnout), citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more and without a high school diploma who answered the voting question	2024		26,343	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	A point estimate without an interval.
regshare_sr_hisp_2024	67%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration among respondents only (nonrespondents dropped from the registered share and from turnout), White non-Hispanic minus Hispanic citizens	White non-Hispanic and Hispanic citizens who answered the voting question	2024		52,800	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	A point estimate without an interval.
regshare_sr_inc_2024	65%	percent of the turnout difference	share of the turnout difference that arises at registration among respondents only (nonrespondents dropped from the registered share and from turnout), highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens in the highest and lowest thirds of family income who answered the voting question	2024		48,044	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement	A point estimate without an interval.
res_1976	59.2%	percent	weighted share who reported voting; persons outside the voting-question universe count as not voting	all residents 18 and older	1976	95% CI 58.8% to 59.5%	89,090	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
res_1996	54.2%	percent	weighted share who reported voting; persons outside the voting-question universe count as not voting	all residents 18 and older	1996	95% CI 53.9% to 54.6%	89,609	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
res_2024	59.3%	percent	weighted share who reported voting; persons outside the voting-question universe count as not voting	all residents 18 and older	2024	95% CI 58.9% to 59.7%	78,650	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
sr_2020	79.2%	percent	weighted share who reported voting; nonresponse excluded (self-report convention)	citizens 18 and older who answered the voting question	2020			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
sr_2024	76.1%	percent	weighted share who reported voting; nonresponse excluded (self-report convention)	citizens 18 and older who answered the voting question	2024			VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
srgap_age_2024	23.0	percentage points	difference in the weighted share who reported voting among respondents (self-report convention): citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens 18 and older who answered the voting question	2024	95% CI 21.8 to 24.3	28,718	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
srgap_black_2024	7.7	percentage points	difference in the weighted share who reported voting among respondents (self-report convention): White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older who answered the voting question	2024	95% CI 6.3 to 9.1	51,535	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
srgap_educ_2024	42.9	percentage points	difference in the weighted share who reported voting among respondents (self-report convention): bachelor's degree or more minus no high school diploma	citizens 25 and older who answered the voting question	2024	95% CI 40.9 to 44.9	26,343	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
srgap_hisp_2024	19.6	percentage points	difference in the weighted share who reported voting among respondents (self-report convention): White non-Hispanic minus Hispanic citizens	citizens 18 and older who answered the voting question	2024	95% CI 18.3 to 21.0	52,800	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
srgap_inc_2024	20.7	percentage points	difference in the weighted share who reported voting among respondents (self-report convention): highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens 18 and older who answered the voting question	2024	95% CI 19.8 to 21.6	48,044	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
totdiff_age_2024	23.9	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29	citizens aged 65 and older and citizens aged 18 to 29	2024	95% CI 22.7 to 25.2	33,208	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
totdiff_black_2024	10.4	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizens	White and Black non-Hispanic citizens	2024	95% CI 9.0 to 11.8	58,873	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
totdiff_educ_2024	40.5	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more minus those without a high school diploma	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more and without a high school diploma	2024	95% CI 38.7 to 42.4	29,750	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
totdiff_hisp_2024	19.9	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: White non-Hispanic minus Hispanic citizens	White non-Hispanic and Hispanic citizens	2024	95% CI 18.6 to 21.2	60,301	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
totdiff_inc_2024	20.2	percentage points	difference in weighted turnout: highest minus lowest third of family income	citizens in the highest and lowest thirds of family income	2024	95% CI 19.3 to 21.1	55,352	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
treg_ba_2024	94.2%	percent	weighted share of the registered who voted	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more who were registered	2024 presidential election	95% CI 93.8% to 94.6%	21,949	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
treg_lths_2024	76.1%	percent	weighted share of the registered who voted	citizens 25 and older without a high school diploma who were registered	2024 presidential election	95% CI 74.0% to 78.2%	2,115	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_a1829_1996	39.6%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens aged 18 to 29	1996 presidential election	95% CI 38.8% to 40.4%	17,234	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_a1829_2008	51.1%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens aged 18 to 29	2008 presidential election	95% CI 50.2% to 51.9%	17,867	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_a1829_2024	50.7%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens aged 18 to 29	2024 presidential election	95% CI 49.7% to 51.8%	12,303	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_a65_1996	69.1%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens aged 65 and older	1996 presidential election	95% CI 68.3% to 70.0%	15,076	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_a65_2008	70.3%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens aged 65 and older	2008 presidential election	95% CI 69.5% to 71.1%	17,170	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_a65_2024	74.7%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens aged 65 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 74.0% to 75.4%	20,905	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_asian_2024	57.6%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	Asian or Pacific Islander non-Hispanic citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 55.9% to 59.4%	3,853	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_ba_2024	79.6%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more	2024 presidential election	95% CI 79.0% to 80.2%	25,742	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_black_2024	60.1%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	Black non-Hispanic citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 58.7% to 61.4%	6,636	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_hisp_2024	50.6%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	Hispanic citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 49.4% to 51.8%	8,064	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_inc_hi_2024	74.5%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older in the highest third of family income that year	2024 presidential election	95% CI 73.9% to 75.1%	28,984	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_inc_lo_2024	54.3%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 18 and older in the lowest third of family income that year	2024 presidential election	95% CI 53.6% to 55.0%	26,368	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_lths_2024	39.1%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	citizens 25 and older without a high school diploma	2024 presidential election	95% CI 37.4% to 40.8%	4,008	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement
v_white_2024	70.5%	percent	weighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)	White non-Hispanic citizens 18 and older	2024 presidential election	95% CI 70.0% to 70.9%	52,237	VOSUPPWT	CPS Voting and Registration Supplement

Definitions

Survey weights: Numbers that scale each respondent so the sample matches the population on known traits such as age, race, education and region. A weighted average counts a respondent with a large weight for more than one with a small weight.
Confidence interval: A range around an estimate that would contain the true value in 95% of repeated samples if the sampling model held. The book reports 95% intervals unless it says otherwise.
Effective sample size: The number of equally weighted respondents that would give the same precision as the weighted sample. It is smaller than the raw count when the weights vary a lot, and it sets how wide the confidence interval is.
Cohort: People born in the same period, such as the same decade. Comparing cohorts shows whether a difference comes from when people were born, as distinct from their age or the year they were surveyed.
Linear probability model: A regression of a yes-or-no outcome on predictors, fitted by least squares so that each coefficient is a change in the probability of yes. The book weights it and reports robust standard errors.

Methods

Sample: the IPUMS-CPS extract of the Census Bureau's November Voting and Registration Supplement, 25 biennial supplements from 1976 to 2024. The analysis uses adults 18 and older with a positive supplement weight (2,494,218 person records), and from 1994, the first year the extract records citizenship, the citizens among them (1,422,311). Weight: VOSUPPWT, the supplement person weight. Outcome: voted_census, the Census Bureau convention, in which a respondent who refused, did not know or did not respond counts as not voting; from 2022 citizens whom IPUMS codes not in universe on the voting item but who carry a positive weight (the supplement nonrespondents) also count as not voting. The share of citizens who did not answer rose from 6.2% in 1994 to 17.7% in 2018 and was 14.1% in 2024. Two universes: citizens 18 and older, 1994 to 2024 (the headline), and all residents 18 and older, 1976 to 2024, in which every adult outside the voting-question universe counts as not voting, the Census total-population convention. From 1978 to 1992 the voting question was not asked of 3.5% to 6.8% of adults (40.2% of Hispanic adults in 1992, against 1.9% of White non-Hispanic adults), a pattern that matches the noncitizen shares from 1994 (in 1976 the supplement asked every adult but a handful). The extract has no citizenship item before 1994, so it can give no citizen series for 1976 to 1992. Published-figure match: the loader asserts that weighted turnout of citizens equals the published Census figure to one decimal in each of 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2020, 2022 and 2024. Further checks against the Census Bureau tables of the same supplement (Table A-1, voting and registration by age, race and ethnicity for all residents and citizens; Table A-2, voting by education; Table 14, method of voting, 2018, 2020, 2022 and 2024): 314 of 314 percentages from 1996 to 2024 (1996 and 1998, then 2002 to 2024) match to the printed decimal, the largest difference being 0.05 points; in 1994 17 of 19 match (the largest difference is 0.4), in 2000 3 of 19 (largest 0.8) and in 1976 to 1992 58 of 115 (largest 0.6); all 176 percentages and all 44 totals of Table 14 match. Registration follows the Census convention: registered if the person voted or said they were registered, and everyone else, including a person who did not answer the voting question and did not report being registered, counts as not registered. Age groups are 18 to 29, 30 to 44, 45 to 64 and 65 and older. Race and ethnicity is the extract's five-group variable: Hispanic of any race, and White, Black, Asian or Pacific Islander, and another or multiple races, all non-Hispanic; respondents could report more than one race from 2003. Education is the extract's four levels for adults 25 and older. Family income is the householder's family income in the brackets of the basic monthly survey, which differ across decades (14 brackets to 2003, 16 from 2004). Income groups are within-year thirds: the brackets are laid out along the weighted distribution of citizens with a bracket, and a bracket that straddles a cut-off is split between the two groups in proportion, so each third holds one third of weighted citizens in every year. Up to 2008 citizens who did not report a bracket (9.1% of citizens in 1994, 11.4% in 1996 and 20.6% in 2008) are outside the thirds; from January 2010 the Census Bureau allocates missing family income (IPUMS notes an allocation rate of about 20 percent), so the thirds from 2010 include allocated values and the series is broken between 2008 and 2010. Intervals: 95%. Shares and differences between independent groups use the Kish effective sample size and a normal approximation, combining standard errors in quadrature; changes in a gap combine four independent estimates. These intervals treat the weighted sample as a simple random sample. The extract has no strata, primary sampling units or replicate weights, so they omit the clustering and stratification of the CPS design and are narrower than design-based intervals by an unknown factor; the generalized variance parameters in the Census Bureau's source-and-accuracy statement were not applied. The adjusted differences use weighted linear probability models fitted separately for each election with standard errors clustered by state (51 clusters, the states and the District of Columbia) and normal critical values; they leave out the within-state design effect. Suppression: a published cell needs at least 100 respondents and a Kish effective sample of at least 100, and 0 were suppressed; the smallest published cell has 985 respondents. Method and timing: VOTEHOW (1996 onward) and VOTEWHEN (2004 onward) are asked only of persons who reported voting (no person who did not vote has an answer in any of the 25 supplements); codes are in person or by mail, and on Election Day or before it, with refused, don't know and no response under one percent of voters. Shares use all persons who voted in the denominator, with don't know or refused as a fourth category, as Table 14 does; in person before Election Day is in person and before, and by mail is by mail whatever the timing. For 2020 the supplement gives 43.0% by mail and 30.4% in person on Election Day, against 43.1% and 30.5% in the Election Assistance Commission's administrative tabulation; for 2024 the supplement gives 30.7% in person before Election Day and 39.6% in person on Election Day against 35.2% and 37.4% there. Benchmarks: ballots counted for president are the sum of the state totals in the MEDSL returns (full counts); the CPS count is the weighted number of adults who reported voting, and its interval takes the adult total as fixed. The voting-eligible-population turnout series was not available, so no benchmark of the turnout rates is applied. ANES self-reported turnout, a post-election item, uses the post-election weight (weight_postelection, VCF9999), and the CES is not used because the universe of its self-reported item changes across years. Survey mode: the extract has no interview-mode variable, so no mode split is made; the CPS is interviewer-administered, by telephone and in person. The ANES 2020 study was collected online, by telephone or by video and has no mode weights, and the 2024 study mixes face-to-face and web samples, so the ANES values are shown only as levels of a different instrument and not as a trend. The Census Bureau's statement that 69.4 percent of 2020 voters used a nontraditional method (mail, or in person before Election Day) uses the voters with a reported method as the denominator, and the same denominator gives 69.4% here. The all-residents series matches the total-population figures of Table A-1 within 0.05 points in every year from 1994 except 2000, where it is 0.27 points below, and sits 0.2 to 0.6 points below them in 1984 to 1992; the 1976 value is on a slightly different footing because the supplement asked every adult that year. Table A-1 also publishes a citizen series from 1978 (64.0% in 1980 and 67.7% in 1992, the latter above the 66.8% of 2020 and the 65.3% of 2024 in this extract); the extract has no citizenship item before 1994 and cannot reproduce it. Registration split: with V the turnout rate, R the registered share and T the share of the registered who voted, V = R x T, and for a higher-turnout group a and a lower-turnout group b, V_a - V_b = (R_a - R_b)(T_a + T_b)/2 + (T_a - T_b)(R_a + R_b)/2 exactly. The first term is the part that arises at registration and the second the part among the registered. The split depends on the order in which R and T are changed: changing R first at the lower group's T, or at the higher group's T, gives the two ends of a range (for education in 2024, 62% to 77%), and the split used in the text is the symmetric one, the midpoint. Its interval is a seeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates, seed 12345; for income over the stacked rows) and omits the design effect, so it is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share also depends on how nonresponse is coded: among respondents only (nonrespondents dropped from the registered share as well as from turnout) the White minus Black share in 2024 is 44% against 62% under the Census convention, and the education share is 67% against 70%. Administrative comparison for 2024: the Election Assistance Commission reports early in-person shares of 30.6% for 2020 and 35.2% for 2024 against 26.0% and 30.7% in the supplement, but its percentages are computed state by state with casewise deletion and sum to 104.2% in 2020 and 102.9% in 2024, so they are not comparable with shares that sum to 100%. Counts compare better: the Commission reports 41,415,710 early in-person ballots for 2020 (41,266,229 in its 2020 report) and 48,872,528 for 2024, an increase of 18.0%, and the weighted counts of CPS voters who voted in person before Election Day are 40.2 million and 47.4 million, an increase of 17.9%.

What these data cannot show

The CPS reports what respondents say, and the extract has no validated vote.
The validated-vote study cited above found over-reporting more common among more educated respondents and found that using reported instead of verified voting inflates the effect of variables tied to over-reporting [9].
The education gradient and the registered shares of the better educated may therefore be overstated here by an amount the data do not give.
Nonresponse is also tied to the characteristics studied, and the Census convention's treatment of it changes some differences: the White minus Black difference in 2024 is smaller among respondents than under the convention.
The supplements are repeated cross-sections.
They interview different people each time, so they cannot say whether a group's turnout changed because its members changed their behavior or because its composition changed, for example as the share of citizens with a bachelor's degree grew.
A gap between age groups mixes age, period and birth cohort.
Chapter 3.2, The two coalitions (https://vishalsingh.org/politics/the-two-coalitions) takes up who the voters are compared with all eligible adults, a different question from the turnout rates here.
The headline comparison starts in 1994, and citizen turnout was higher earlier on the Census Bureau's own series.
Its historical table of reported voting gives 67.7% for 1992, above the 66.8% of 2020 and the 65.3% of 2024, from a citizenship item that the extract lacks.
The finding that 2018 to 2024 exceeded earlier elections of their type therefore covers 1994 to 2016 only.
Citizens are also not the same as eligible voters.
The citizen count includes citizens who cannot vote because of a criminal conviction or residence rules and leaves out citizens in institutions and abroad, and the extract has no measure of either.
The CPS identifies roughly three hundred large counties, which supports no county or small-area estimate, and no state estimates are made, because state rates would need the benchmark that was not available here.
The intervals omit the CPS design effect, so every interval is too narrow by an unknown factor, and a result whose interval lies close to zero should be read with that in mind.
The change in the gap between a bachelor's degree and a high school diploma from 1996 to 2024, +1.4 (95% CI 0.1 to 2.8), is an example.
Family income is a householder-family bracket with allocated values from 2010, so it measures neither wealth nor individual earnings, and the thirds before and after 2010 are not on one footing.
The race groups are broad, with all Asian citizens in one group and Hispanic citizens of every origin in another.
The adjusted differences describe a model with four characteristics and do not identify why any group votes at a different rate.
The method and timing items are self-reports.
They match the Census Bureau tables, but the administrative tabulation gives higher early in-person shares, so the split between early and Election Day voting should be read as approximate.

References

Hur, Aram; Achen, Christopher H. (2013). Coding Voter Turnout Responses in the Current Population Survey. Public Opinion Quarterly 77(4): 985-993. doi:10.1093/poq/nft042
Wolfinger, Raymond E.; Rosenstone, Steven J. (1980). Who Votes?. Yale University Press.
Kish, Leslie (1965). Survey Sampling. John Wiley and Sons.
McDonald, Michael P.; Popkin, Samuel L. (2001). The Myth of the Vanishing Voter. American Political Science Review 95(4): 963-974. doi:10.1017/S0003055400400134
Plutzer, Eric (2002). Becoming a Habitual Voter: Inertia, Resources, and Growth in Young Adulthood. American Political Science Review 96(1): 41-56. doi:10.1017/S0003055402004227
Fabina, Jacob; Scherer, Zach (2022). Voting and Registration in the Election of November 2020. U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports P20-585. www.census.gov/library/publications/2022/demo/p20-585.html
U.S. Election Assistance Commission (2021). Election Administration and Voting Survey 2020 Comprehensive Report. A Report from the U.S. Election Assistance Commission to the 117th Congress. www.eac.gov/sites/default/files/document_library/files/2020_EAVS_Report_Final_508c.pdf
U.S. Election Assistance Commission (2025). Election Administration and Voting Survey 2024 Comprehensive Report. A Report from the U.S. Election Assistance Commission to the 119th Congress. www.eac.gov/sites/default/files/2025-07/2024_EAVS_Report_508.pdf
Bernstein, Robert; Chadha, Anita; Montjoy, Robert (2001). Overreporting Voting: Why It Happens and Why It Matters. Public Opinion Quarterly 65(1): 22-44. doi:10.1086/320036

Provenance

Pipeline version: 1.0.0
Build script: book3/chapters/turnout/build.py (sha256 f83f1ddeb6735213cb202d6e2f8ab3e741c4e6f3378c9aaac751ff36ff2a6435)
Built on: 2026-10-03
Site commit: 16414b2c7257546a7042d0b1734657f208999f60

Inputs

File	Size (bytes)	SHA-256, first 1 MB	SHA-256, last 1 MB
book3/chapters/turnout/census_published.json	206,983	5864bc7bb99afdb1f3279ca9272bc85ae38cc7c34b962735c763f25bbf418a6f	5864bc7bb99afdb1f3279ca9272bc85ae38cc7c34b962735c763f25bbf418a6f
data/anes/anes_cdf_clean.parquet	15,640,720	b3f0c2d8ae5673b2c40cf6df71318ea3f712cd845c4f1aad0460f28d1b022643	04f06dae56b65649291caf6cf77aab9767d9c92d0c2669c6d3655d9063970583
data/state/1976-2024-president.csv	514,108	9936410a6dd4ecc8be7fe202c6dff5b5f8fee59d88f35ab542ed12879941dcb7	9936410a6dd4ecc8be7fe202c6dff5b5f8fee59d88f35ab542ed12879941dcb7
C:/Users/Vishal Singh/Box/ipums/analysis/cps/cps_voter.parquet	94,510,422	226363c25c563e5ab8d0dfb30d20a40ab01b72707a0075592ad9bfd8ff06bd36	dab575569dddeb25cef8623455f2e19702772519e1e50173d364a1b0c81fe3ae

Outputs

File	SHA-256
facts.json	a9eedc6791ddcad54b741d037eebe05896b11bb77a2881c7c5bf741a1c9870de
figures/adjusted_gaps.json	4469237dc677c4e841ce900d0758250677da01752c98dbb9c9c5e5d2a5089898
figures/age_trend.json	83bfca7b502aac3c7c2c70a6e79a0a2ef816d84daed171f5aacf490ee6b31b54
figures/cps_vs_certified.json	f85f715b8dc2a08354303fc30e8b8f1f9dee3219d884a905bd7dfe6e0279cd4b
figures/education_trend.json	d98ede92d8041b509af3701d6a99ae808a9d9846ce8c588b386d92246da8f40a
figures/income_trend.json	77a0fd34b6c2b36fff1209f7f806e0ca64c2cbbeafc8251d50f98ae1a16ffcb8
figures/race_trend.json	10c1342c9efd9d5554e1770eb7834ffc0562f7cfe7a9b8e905b24f0a8732dc21
figures/turnout_by_group.json	189f11c2d08d4edd04a8baab4f5f9fa5708b607444c94c08cdf8cfc0d4f592fd
figures/turnout_trend.json	2d46d2bb16b341ba06180003498be4b476accf9530290e1d857b766070ec0263
figures/vote_method.json	fdd063ef7d2e53a2f5adb098194ed3c574d0926d9cdd8940c0feb546093d358d
meta.json	c46858298c06de6e6c1c45798a1e685940f312f646079000da76084d889adeea
refs.json	fadec0e6bc9a7fab4cd8e2e2fd8a0c4397864b2174201cbc823f378adbae37ba

Machine formats

Report (Markdown): https://vishalsingh.org/politics/turnout/report.md
Every estimate (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/facts.json
Table 1, figure "turnout_trend" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/turnout_trend.json
Table 2, figure "turnout_by_group" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/turnout_by_group.json
Table 3, figure "age_trend" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/age_trend.json
Table 4, figure "race_trend" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/race_trend.json
Table 5, figure "education_trend" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/education_trend.json
Table 6, figure "income_trend" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/income_trend.json
Table 7, figure "adjusted_gaps" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/adjusted_gaps.json
Table 8, figure "vote_method" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/vote_method.json
Table 9, figure "cps_vs_certified" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/politics/report/turnout/figures/cps_vs_certified.json
Index of every report: https://vishalsingh.org/politics/llms.txt; all reports in one file: https://vishalsingh.org/politics/llms-full.txt