Chapter 3.1
Turnout
In the November 2024 Current Population Survey, 79.6% of citizens aged twenty-five and older with a bachelor's degree reported voting, against 39.1% of those without a high school diploma.
DraftFigures and numbers may change as the analysis is rebuilt.what is still being checked
The comparison of CPS turnout rates with the voting-eligible-population turnout series is not yet made because that series was not among the data used.
Among citizens twenty-five and older, 80%79.6% percentEstimandweighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)Interval95% CI 79.0% to 80.2%n25,742WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or morePeriod2024 presidential electionSourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement of those with a bachelor's degree reported voting in November 2024, against 39%39.1% percentEstimandweighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)Interval95% CI 37.4% to 40.8%n4,008WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens 25 and older without a high school diplomaPeriod2024 presidential electionSourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement of those without a high school diploma. Across all citizens eighteen and older the share was 65%65.3% percentEstimandweighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)Interval95% CI 64.9% to 65.7%n72,590WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens 18 and olderPeriod2024 presidential electionSourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement. These are answers to the Current Population Survey (CPS), in which a person tells a Census Bureau interviewer whether they voted, and a person who gives no answer is counted as not voting. Most of the distance between graduates and citizens without a diploma lies in who was registered, and less of it in whether registered citizens went on to vote.
Most of the education gap arises at registration
The chapter compares five pairs of groups in 2024. They are the oldest citizens and the youngest, graduates and those without a diploma, the highest and lowest thirds of family income, White and Black citizens, and White and Hispanic citizens. Turnout rose with age, education and family income, and Hispanic citizens had the lowest turnout of the racial and ethnic groups. Among citizens sixty-five and older, 75%74.7% percentEstimandweighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)Interval95% CI 74.0% to 75.4%n20,905WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens aged 65 and olderPeriod2024 presidential electionSourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement reported voting, against 51%50.7% percentEstimandweighted share who reported voting (Census convention: nonresponse counted as not voting)Interval95% CI 49.7% to 51.8%n12,303WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens aged 18 to 29Period2024 presidential electionSourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement of those aged eighteen to twenty-nine. The education difference was the largest of the five, at 40.540.5 percentage pointsEstimanddifference in weighted turnout: citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more minus those without a high school diplomaInterval95% CI 38.7 to 42.4n29,750WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more and without a high school diplomaPeriod2024SourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement pointsPercentage pointThe unit for the difference between two percentages. A change from one share to another is stated in points, not in percent, so that absolute and relative change are not confused. between a bachelor's degree and no high school diploma. Chapter 3.4, The diploma divide covers how graduates and non-graduates vote; this chapter covers whether they vote.
A turnout rate has two parts. A citizen first has to be registered, and a registered citizen then has to vote, so the share who vote is the registered share times the share of the registered who vote.A citizen counts as registered if the person voted or said they were registered. A person who did not answer the voting question counts as not registered unless the person reported being registered. In 2024 the registered share differed more across groups than the share of the registered who vote. Splitting each gap into a part that arises at registration and a part that arises among the registered puts 70%70% percent of the turnout differenceEstimandshare of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), citizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more minus those without a high school diplomaInterval95% CI 67% to 73%n29,750WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more and without a high school diplomaPeriod2024SourceCPS Voting and Registration SupplementNoteSeeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded. of the education gap at registration. The shares for age, income and the White minus Hispanic gap were 68%68% percent of the turnout differenceEstimandshare of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), citizens 65 and older minus citizens 18 to 29Interval95% CI 65% to 71%n33,208WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens aged 65 and older and citizens aged 18 to 29Period2024SourceCPS Voting and Registration SupplementNoteSeeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded., 69%69% percent of the turnout differenceEstimandshare of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), highest minus lowest third of family incomeInterval95% CI 67% to 71%n55,352WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens in the highest and lowest thirds of family incomePeriod2024SourceCPS Voting and Registration SupplementNoteSeeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded. and 70%70% percent of the turnout differenceEstimandshare of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), White non-Hispanic minus Hispanic citizensInterval95% CI 67% to 74%n60,301WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationWhite non-Hispanic and Hispanic citizensPeriod2024SourceCPS Voting and Registration SupplementNoteSeeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded.. The split depends on which part is changed first; the share here is the midpoint of the two orders, and the report gives the range.
Figure 1
In 2024 turnout rose with age, education and family income, and Hispanic citizens had the lowest turnout of the racial and ethnic groups
Percent of citizens who voted, who were registered, and who voted among the registered, by age, race and ethnicity, education and family income, 2024 (buttons show other elections); 95% intervals from the Kish effective sample size
Voted (share of citizens)
Registered (share of citizens)
Voted (share of the registered)
Percent of the group
Show data
| Year | Measure | Dimension | Group | Percent | 95% CI low | 95% CI high | n respondents |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 65.3 | 64.9 | 65.7 | 72,590 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 50.7 | 49.7 | 51.8 | 12,303 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 61.9 | 61.0 | 62.7 | 16,754 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 70.0 | 69.3 | 70.6 | 22,628 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 74.7 | 74.0 | 75.4 | 20,905 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 70.5 | 70.0 | 70.9 | 52,237 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 60.1 | 58.7 | 61.4 | 6,636 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 50.6 | 49.4 | 51.8 | 8,064 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 57.6 | 55.9 | 59.4 | 3,853 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 57.3 | 54.5 | 60.2 | 1,800 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 39.1 | 37.4 | 40.8 | 4,008 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 55.3 | 54.4 | 56.1 | 18,383 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 69.2 | 68.4 | 70.0 | 17,338 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 79.6 | 79.0 | 80.2 | 25,742 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 54.3 | 53.6 | 55.0 | 26,368 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 67.2 | 66.6 | 67.8 | 35,210 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 74.5 | 73.9 | 75.1 | 28,984 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 73.6 | 73.3 | 74.0 | 72,590 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 61.7 | 60.7 | 62.7 | 12,303 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 71.9 | 71.2 | 72.7 | 16,754 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 77.2 | 76.6 | 77.8 | 22,628 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 80.3 | 79.7 | 80.9 | 20,905 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 77.7 | 77.2 | 78.1 | 52,237 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 70.3 | 69.1 | 71.6 | 6,636 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 61.5 | 60.3 | 62.6 | 8,064 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 66.2 | 64.5 | 67.8 | 3,853 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 68.9 | 66.2 | 71.5 | 1,800 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 51.4 | 49.6 | 53.1 | 4,008 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 65.8 | 65.0 | 66.6 | 18,383 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 78.2 | 77.5 | 78.9 | 17,338 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 84.5 | 84.0 | 85.0 | 25,742 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 65.1 | 64.4 | 65.8 | 26,368 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 74.8 | 74.2 | 75.4 | 35,210 |
| 2024 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 81.0 | 80.4 | 81.5 | 28,984 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | All citizens | All citizens | 88.8 | 88.5 | 89.1 | 54,231 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 82.2 | 81.2 | 83.2 | 7,627 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 86.0 | 85.3 | 86.7 | 12,233 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 90.6 | 90.1 | 91.1 | 17,491 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 93.0 | 92.6 | 93.5 | 16,880 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | White | 90.7 | 90.4 | 91.1 | 40,754 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 85.4 | 84.3 | 86.5 | 4,698 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 82.3 | 81.1 | 83.4 | 5,000 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 87.1 | 85.6 | 88.6 | 2,546 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 83.2 | 80.7 | 85.8 | 1,233 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 76.1 | 74.0 | 78.2 | 2,115 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 84.0 | 83.3 | 84.7 | 12,334 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 88.5 | 87.9 | 89.1 | 13,658 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 94.2 | 93.8 | 94.6 | 21,949 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Lowest third | 83.4 | 82.8 | 84.1 | 17,698 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Middle third | 89.8 | 89.4 | 90.3 | 26,950 |
| 2024 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Highest third | 92.0 | 91.6 | 92.5 | 23,573 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 52.2 | 51.8 | 52.6 | 73,083 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 31.2 | 30.3 | 32.1 | 12,305 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 46.9 | 46.1 | 47.8 | 16,909 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 58.3 | 57.5 | 59.0 | 23,378 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 66.8 | 66.1 | 67.6 | 20,491 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 57.6 | 57.2 | 58.1 | 52,569 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 45.6 | 44.3 | 47.0 | 7,247 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 37.9 | 36.7 | 39.0 | 7,741 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 40.2 | 38.5 | 42.0 | 3,755 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 42.9 | 40.0 | 45.7 | 1,771 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 29.2 | 27.7 | 30.8 | 4,251 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 43.9 | 43.1 | 44.7 | 18,919 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 55.8 | 55.0 | 56.6 | 17,609 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 67.7 | 67.0 | 68.3 | 25,233 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 41.8 | 41.1 | 42.5 | 29,857 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 53.3 | 52.7 | 54.0 | 35,033 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 61.5 | 60.8 | 62.2 | 25,708 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 69.1 | 68.7 | 69.5 | 73,083 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 53.5 | 52.5 | 54.5 | 12,305 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 68.0 | 67.2 | 68.8 | 16,909 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 73.4 | 72.8 | 74.0 | 23,378 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 77.4 | 76.7 | 78.0 | 20,491 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 73.2 | 72.8 | 73.6 | 52,569 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 64.6 | 63.4 | 65.9 | 7,247 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 57.8 | 56.6 | 59.0 | 7,741 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 59.8 | 58.0 | 61.5 | 3,755 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 63.7 | 60.9 | 66.4 | 1,771 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 48.7 | 47.0 | 50.4 | 4,251 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 62.2 | 61.4 | 63.0 | 18,919 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 74.7 | 73.9 | 75.4 | 17,609 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 80.3 | 79.8 | 80.9 | 25,233 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 60.2 | 59.5 | 60.8 | 29,857 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 70.9 | 70.2 | 71.5 | 35,033 |
| 2022 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 76.3 | 75.7 | 76.9 | 25,708 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | All citizens | All citizens | 75.5 | 75.1 | 76.0 | 51,451 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 58.3 | 56.9 | 59.6 | 6,584 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 69.0 | 68.0 | 70.0 | 11,601 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 79.4 | 78.7 | 80.1 | 17,266 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 86.4 | 85.8 | 87.0 | 16,000 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | White | 78.7 | 78.3 | 79.2 | 38,831 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 70.6 | 69.1 | 72.1 | 4,840 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 65.5 | 64.0 | 67.0 | 4,424 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 67.3 | 65.1 | 69.5 | 2,232 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 67.3 | 63.9 | 70.7 | 1,124 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 60.0 | 57.6 | 62.4 | 2,106 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 70.6 | 69.7 | 71.6 | 12,050 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 74.7 | 73.9 | 75.6 | 13,339 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 84.2 | 83.7 | 84.8 | 20,514 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Lowest third | 69.5 | 68.7 | 70.3 | 18,956 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Middle third | 75.3 | 74.6 | 75.9 | 25,614 |
| 2022 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Highest third | 80.5 | 79.9 | 81.2 | 19,807 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 66.8 | 66.4 | 67.1 | 81,898 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 54.1 | 53.2 | 55.0 | 14,347 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 64.4 | 63.6 | 65.1 | 19,144 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 71.0 | 70.4 | 71.6 | 27,161 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 74.5 | 73.8 | 75.1 | 21,246 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 70.9 | 70.5 | 71.4 | 59,555 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 62.8 | 61.6 | 64.0 | 8,419 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 53.7 | 52.6 | 54.9 | 8,163 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 59.3 | 57.6 | 61.1 | 3,860 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 58.7 | 55.9 | 61.5 | 1,901 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 43.7 | 42.1 | 45.2 | 5,000 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 58.0 | 57.3 | 58.8 | 21,412 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 71.1 | 70.4 | 71.8 | 20,091 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 80.0 | 79.4 | 80.5 | 27,130 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 56.1 | 55.5 | 56.8 | 30,319 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 67.7 | 67.1 | 68.3 | 33,174 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 76.5 | 75.9 | 77.1 | 36,140 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 72.7 | 72.3 | 73.0 | 81,898 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 62.5 | 61.6 | 63.4 | 14,347 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 71.5 | 70.8 | 72.2 | 19,144 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 75.7 | 75.1 | 76.3 | 27,161 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 78.6 | 77.9 | 79.2 | 21,246 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 76.5 | 76.1 | 76.9 | 59,555 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 69.1 | 68.0 | 70.2 | 8,419 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 61.1 | 60.0 | 62.3 | 8,163 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 63.5 | 61.8 | 65.2 | 3,860 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 68.7 | 66.1 | 71.3 | 1,901 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 53.1 | 51.6 | 54.7 | 5,000 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 65.5 | 64.8 | 66.3 | 21,412 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 77.0 | 76.4 | 77.7 | 20,091 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 83.1 | 82.6 | 83.6 | 27,130 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 64.3 | 63.7 | 65.0 | 30,319 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 73.4 | 72.8 | 73.9 | 33,174 |
| 2020 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 80.3 | 79.8 | 80.9 | 36,140 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | All citizens | All citizens | 91.9 | 91.6 | 92.1 | 59,993 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 86.6 | 85.8 | 87.4 | 8,900 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 90.0 | 89.4 | 90.6 | 13,745 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 93.7 | 93.4 | 94.1 | 20,600 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 94.8 | 94.4 | 95.2 | 16,748 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | White | 92.8 | 92.5 | 93.0 | 45,350 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 90.9 | 90.0 | 91.7 | 5,894 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 87.9 | 87.0 | 88.9 | 4,970 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 93.5 | 92.4 | 94.6 | 2,476 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 85.5 | 83.1 | 87.8 | 1,303 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 82.2 | 80.6 | 83.9 | 2,686 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 88.5 | 87.9 | 89.1 | 14,188 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 92.3 | 91.8 | 92.7 | 15,568 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 96.2 | 95.9 | 96.5 | 22,666 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Lowest third | 87.2 | 86.7 | 87.8 | 19,967 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Middle third | 92.3 | 91.9 | 92.7 | 24,506 |
| 2020 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Highest third | 95.2 | 94.9 | 95.5 | 28,675 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 53.4 | 53.1 | 53.8 | 88,749 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 35.6 | 34.7 | 36.4 | 15,758 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 48.8 | 48.0 | 49.6 | 20,821 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 59.5 | 58.8 | 60.1 | 30,528 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 66.1 | 65.4 | 66.8 | 21,642 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 57.5 | 57.0 | 57.9 | 64,983 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 51.4 | 50.2 | 52.6 | 8,773 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 40.4 | 39.3 | 41.5 | 8,745 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 40.4 | 38.7 | 42.1 | 4,100 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 45.5 | 42.9 | 48.2 | 2,148 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 30.0 | 28.7 | 31.3 | 6,074 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 44.9 | 44.2 | 45.6 | 23,004 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 57.7 | 56.9 | 58.4 | 22,009 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 69.5 | 68.9 | 70.1 | 28,734 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 43.3 | 42.6 | 43.9 | 34,941 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 54.1 | 53.5 | 54.7 | 35,374 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 62.9 | 62.3 | 63.5 | 36,649 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 66.9 | 66.5 | 67.2 | 88,749 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 52.9 | 52.0 | 53.8 | 15,758 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 64.3 | 63.6 | 65.1 | 20,821 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 71.4 | 70.8 | 72.0 | 30,528 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 76.0 | 75.3 | 76.6 | 21,642 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 71.0 | 70.6 | 71.4 | 64,983 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 64.5 | 63.3 | 65.6 | 8,773 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 53.7 | 52.6 | 54.9 | 8,745 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 52.6 | 50.8 | 54.3 | 4,100 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 62.0 | 59.4 | 64.5 | 2,148 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 47.2 | 45.8 | 48.6 | 6,074 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 60.3 | 59.5 | 61.0 | 23,004 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 72.2 | 71.5 | 72.9 | 22,009 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 78.7 | 78.2 | 79.2 | 28,734 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 59.1 | 58.4 | 59.7 | 34,941 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 67.2 | 66.6 | 67.8 | 35,374 |
| 2018 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 74.4 | 73.9 | 75.0 | 36,649 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | All citizens | All citizens | 79.9 | 79.5 | 80.3 | 60,349 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 67.2 | 66.0 | 68.3 | 8,298 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 75.9 | 75.0 | 76.7 | 13,571 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 83.3 | 82.7 | 83.8 | 21,897 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 87.1 | 86.5 | 87.6 | 16,583 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | White | 80.9 | 80.5 | 81.3 | 46,399 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 79.7 | 78.5 | 80.9 | 5,775 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 75.2 | 73.8 | 76.5 | 4,687 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 76.8 | 74.8 | 78.8 | 2,151 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 73.5 | 70.6 | 76.4 | 1,337 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 63.6 | 61.6 | 65.6 | 2,930 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 74.5 | 73.7 | 75.3 | 14,108 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 79.9 | 79.2 | 80.6 | 16,064 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 88.3 | 87.8 | 88.8 | 22,907 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Lowest third | 73.3 | 72.5 | 74.0 | 21,328 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Middle third | 80.5 | 80.0 | 81.1 | 24,401 |
| 2018 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Highest third | 84.6 | 84.0 | 85.1 | 27,344 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 61.4 | 61.0 | 61.7 | 93,794 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 46.1 | 45.3 | 47.0 | 17,431 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 58.8 | 58.0 | 59.5 | 21,923 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 66.6 | 66.1 | 67.2 | 33,170 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 70.9 | 70.2 | 71.6 | 21,270 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 65.3 | 64.9 | 65.7 | 69,164 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 59.6 | 58.5 | 60.7 | 9,556 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 47.6 | 46.4 | 48.7 | 8,703 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 48.9 | 47.2 | 50.7 | 4,079 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 50.2 | 47.6 | 52.7 | 2,292 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 37.3 | 36.0 | 38.6 | 6,908 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 53.9 | 53.2 | 54.6 | 24,702 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 66.0 | 65.3 | 66.7 | 23,525 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 77.1 | 76.6 | 77.7 | 28,684 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 50.2 | 49.6 | 50.8 | 32,737 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 62.5 | 61.9 | 63.1 | 42,544 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 71.4 | 70.9 | 72.0 | 35,668 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 70.3 | 70.0 | 70.7 | 93,794 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 58.5 | 57.6 | 59.3 | 17,431 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 68.6 | 67.9 | 69.3 | 21,923 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 74.0 | 73.5 | 74.5 | 33,170 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 78.0 | 77.4 | 78.7 | 21,270 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 73.9 | 73.5 | 74.3 | 69,164 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 69.6 | 68.5 | 70.6 | 9,556 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 57.3 | 56.1 | 58.4 | 8,703 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 56.5 | 54.8 | 58.3 | 4,079 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 63.0 | 60.5 | 65.5 | 2,292 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 49.2 | 47.8 | 50.5 | 6,908 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 64.6 | 64.0 | 65.3 | 24,702 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 75.0 | 74.4 | 75.6 | 23,525 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 82.5 | 82.0 | 83.0 | 28,684 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 61.9 | 61.2 | 62.5 | 32,737 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 71.1 | 70.5 | 71.6 | 42,544 |
| 2016 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 78.1 | 77.6 | 78.6 | 35,668 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | All citizens | All citizens | 87.3 | 87.0 | 87.6 | 66,881 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 78.9 | 78.0 | 79.8 | 10,241 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 85.6 | 85.0 | 86.3 | 15,171 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 90.0 | 89.6 | 90.4 | 24,684 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 90.9 | 90.4 | 91.3 | 16,785 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | White | 88.3 | 88.0 | 88.7 | 51,372 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 85.6 | 84.7 | 86.6 | 6,810 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 83.1 | 81.9 | 84.2 | 5,015 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 86.6 | 85.0 | 88.2 | 2,262 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 79.6 | 77.0 | 82.2 | 1,422 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 75.9 | 74.3 | 77.5 | 3,498 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 83.4 | 82.7 | 84.0 | 16,166 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 88.0 | 87.5 | 88.6 | 17,825 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 93.5 | 93.2 | 93.9 | 23,854 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Lowest third | 81.2 | 80.6 | 81.8 | 20,718 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Middle third | 87.9 | 87.5 | 88.4 | 30,683 |
| 2016 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Highest third | 91.5 | 91.1 | 91.9 | 27,965 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 61.8 | 61.5 | 62.2 | 94,311 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 45.0 | 44.2 | 45.9 | 17,998 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 59.5 | 58.8 | 60.3 | 22,680 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 67.9 | 67.3 | 68.4 | 34,382 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 72.0 | 71.3 | 72.7 | 19,251 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 64.1 | 63.7 | 64.5 | 71,460 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 66.6 | 65.6 | 67.7 | 9,232 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 48.0 | 46.7 | 49.2 | 7,812 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 47.1 | 45.2 | 49.0 | 3,640 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 55.3 | 52.8 | 57.9 | 2,167 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 41.2 | 40.0 | 42.5 | 7,512 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 56.0 | 55.3 | 56.7 | 25,733 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 67.6 | 66.9 | 68.3 | 23,322 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 77.8 | 77.3 | 78.4 | 27,231 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 51.6 | 51.0 | 52.3 | 31,102 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 62.1 | 61.5 | 62.7 | 37,036 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 71.7 | 71.1 | 72.3 | 41,910 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 71.2 | 70.9 | 71.5 | 94,311 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 57.8 | 57.0 | 58.7 | 17,998 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 70.2 | 69.5 | 70.9 | 22,680 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 75.4 | 74.9 | 75.9 | 34,382 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 79.4 | 78.8 | 80.1 | 19,251 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 73.7 | 73.4 | 74.1 | 71,460 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 73.2 | 72.2 | 74.2 | 9,232 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 58.7 | 57.5 | 59.9 | 7,812 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 56.1 | 54.3 | 58.0 | 3,640 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 67.9 | 65.5 | 70.3 | 2,167 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 54.5 | 53.2 | 55.7 | 7,512 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 66.9 | 66.2 | 67.5 | 25,733 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 76.9 | 76.2 | 77.5 | 23,322 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 83.4 | 82.9 | 83.9 | 27,231 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 63.3 | 62.7 | 63.9 | 31,102 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 71.3 | 70.8 | 71.9 | 37,036 |
| 2012 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 78.9 | 78.4 | 79.5 | 41,910 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | All citizens | All citizens | 86.8 | 86.5 | 87.1 | 68,167 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 77.9 | 77.0 | 78.8 | 10,464 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 84.8 | 84.1 | 85.4 | 16,044 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 90.0 | 89.6 | 90.4 | 26,196 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 90.6 | 90.1 | 91.2 | 15,463 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | White | 87.0 | 86.7 | 87.3 | 53,258 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 91.0 | 90.3 | 91.8 | 6,847 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 81.7 | 80.5 | 82.9 | 4,547 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 83.9 | 82.1 | 85.7 | 2,054 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 81.5 | 79.1 | 84.0 | 1,461 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 75.7 | 74.3 | 77.2 | 4,129 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 83.8 | 83.1 | 84.4 | 17,415 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 87.9 | 87.4 | 88.5 | 18,059 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 93.3 | 92.9 | 93.7 | 22,925 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Lowest third | 81.5 | 80.9 | 82.1 | 20,020 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Middle third | 87.0 | 86.6 | 87.5 | 26,583 |
| 2012 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Highest third | 90.8 | 90.4 | 91.2 | 32,994 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 63.6 | 63.3 | 64.0 | 92,360 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 51.1 | 50.2 | 51.9 | 17,867 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 61.8 | 61.1 | 62.5 | 23,057 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 69.2 | 68.6 | 69.7 | 34,266 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 70.3 | 69.5 | 71.1 | 17,170 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 66.1 | 65.7 | 66.5 | 71,497 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 65.2 | 64.1 | 66.3 | 8,607 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 49.9 | 48.6 | 51.1 | 6,925 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 47.2 | 45.3 | 49.2 | 3,349 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 57.5 | 54.7 | 60.2 | 1,982 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 41.6 | 40.4 | 42.8 | 8,467 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 57.0 | 56.3 | 57.7 | 26,066 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 70.6 | 69.9 | 71.3 | 22,758 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 79.3 | 78.7 | 79.9 | 24,625 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 57.0 | 56.3 | 57.7 | 27,450 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 68.7 | 68.0 | 69.3 | 26,322 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 77.9 | 77.3 | 78.5 | 33,247 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | All citizens | All citizens | 71.0 | 70.7 | 71.3 | 92,360 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 61.1 | 60.3 | 61.9 | 17,867 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 69.4 | 68.7 | 70.1 | 23,057 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 74.9 | 74.4 | 75.4 | 34,266 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 77.4 | 76.7 | 78.1 | 17,170 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | White | 73.5 | 73.1 | 73.9 | 71,497 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 70.1 | 69.1 | 71.2 | 8,607 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 59.4 | 58.2 | 60.7 | 6,925 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 55.0 | 53.0 | 56.9 | 3,349 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 67.7 | 65.1 | 70.2 | 1,982 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 53.3 | 52.1 | 54.5 | 8,467 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 66.1 | 65.4 | 66.7 | 26,066 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 77.1 | 76.4 | 77.7 | 22,758 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 83.0 | 82.4 | 83.5 | 24,625 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Lowest third | 67.6 | 66.9 | 68.3 | 27,450 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Middle third | 76.5 | 75.9 | 77.1 | 26,322 |
| 2008 | Registered (share of citizens) | Family income | Highest third | 83.4 | 82.8 | 83.9 | 33,247 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | All citizens | All citizens | 89.6 | 89.4 | 89.9 | 66,700 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 18 to 29 | 83.5 | 82.8 | 84.3 | 10,951 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 30 to 44 | 89.1 | 88.5 | 89.6 | 16,222 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 45 to 64 | 92.4 | 92.0 | 92.7 | 26,021 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Age | Ages 65 and older | 90.8 | 90.3 | 91.4 | 13,506 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | White | 90.0 | 89.7 | 90.2 | 53,301 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Black | 93.0 | 92.2 | 93.7 | 6,119 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Hispanic | 84.0 | 82.8 | 85.2 | 4,090 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Asian | 85.9 | 84.1 | 87.7 | 1,883 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Race and ethnicity | Other or multiple races | 84.9 | 82.5 | 87.3 | 1,307 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Less than high school | 78.1 | 76.7 | 79.4 | 4,586 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | High school graduate | 86.3 | 85.8 | 86.9 | 17,531 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Some college | 91.6 | 91.2 | 92.1 | 17,689 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Education (25 and older) | Bachelor's degree or more | 95.6 | 95.3 | 95.9 | 20,803 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Lowest third | 84.4 | 83.7 | 85.0 | 18,906 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Middle third | 89.8 | 89.3 | 90.3 | 20,261 |
| 2008 | Voted (share of the registered) | Family income | Highest third | 93.5 | 93.1 | 93.9 | 27,640 |
Read the colored education rows across the three panels. In the left panel, the share who voted, the no-diploma dot sits far to the left of the bachelor's dot. In the middle panel, the share registered, the two dots are at 51.4%51.4% percentEstimandweighted share registered (voted, or reported being registered; nonresponse counted as not registered)Interval95% CI 49.6% to 53.1%n4,008WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens 25 and older without a high school diplomaPeriod2024 presidential electionSourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement and 84.5%84.5% percentEstimandweighted share registered (voted, or reported being registered; nonresponse counted as not registered)Interval95% CI 84.0% to 85.0%n25,742WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or morePeriod2024 presidential electionSourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement, and in the right panel, the share of the registered who voted, they draw closer together. The grey rows are all citizens and the age, race and ethnicity, and income groups, and for them too the spread is narrowest in the right panel. Each dot is a weighted share of citizens in 2024 with its 95% interval, and the buttons show other elections. Values in Table 2.
A survey of what people say they did
The data are the Voting and Registration Supplement, a set of questions the Census Bureau adds to its monthly household survey every other November. The harmonized extract from IPUMS holds about 1,400,0001,422,311 respondentsEstimandcount of person recordsWeightsnone (count of records)Populationcitizens 18 and olderPeriod1994 to 2024SourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement citizens interviewed from 1994 to 2024, and every estimate here is weightedSurvey weightsNumbers that scale each respondent so the sample matches the population on known traits such as age, race, education and region. A weighted average counts a respondent with a large weight for more than one with a small weight. so that the sample matches the population. Respondents say whether they voted, and no report is checked against a record. A person who does not answer counts as not voting, the Census Bureau's convention, and in 2024 14%14.1% percentEstimandweighted share who did not answer the voting question (refused, did not know, no response)n72,590WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationcitizens 18 and olderPeriod2024SourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement of citizens did not answer [1]. The citizen series starts in 1994 because the extract records citizenship only from that year. The only series that runs from 1976 on one definition puts every adult resident in the denominator and counts noncitizens as not voting. A denominator that includes people who cannot vote misreads a trend in turnout [2]. The Census Bureau's own tables carry a citizen series for earlier years, from an item the extract lacks, and that series puts 1992 above 2020 and 2024. The report gives every estimate with its interval and sample size.
One gap depends on how nonresponse is coded
Nonresponse is not spread evenly across groups. In 2024 citizens aged eighteen to twenty-nine, Black citizens and Hispanic citizens did not answer the voting question more often than citizens sixty-five and older or White citizens. Part of the registration component therefore reflects who answers the survey. Dropping the nonrespondents instead of counting them as nonvoters leaves four of the five registration shares above an even split and moves the fifth. Among respondents only, the registration part of the White minus Black gap was 44%44% percent of the turnout differenceEstimandshare of the turnout difference that arises at registration among respondents only (nonrespondents dropped from the registered share and from turnout), White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizensn51,535WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationWhite and Black non-Hispanic citizens who answered the voting questionPeriod2024SourceCPS Voting and Registration SupplementNoteA point estimate without an interval. in 2024, against 62%62% percent of the turnout differenceEstimandshare of the turnout difference that arises at registration (symmetric split of the product of the registered share and turnout among the registered), White non-Hispanic minus Black non-Hispanic citizensInterval95% CI 55% to 68%n58,873WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationWhite and Black non-Hispanic citizensPeriod2024SourceCPS Voting and Registration SupplementNoteSeeded percentile bootstrap over respondents (500 replicates); it omits the CPS design effect and is too narrow by an unknown factor. The share depends on the order of the split and on how nonresponse is coded. under the Census convention. The White minus Black turnout gap itself is also smaller among respondents than under the convention. The age, income and Hispanic gaps stay close to their Census-convention values. Whether registration accounts for most of the White minus Black gap therefore turns on a coding choice, and the report gives both codings.
Most 2020 and 2024 voters voted by mail or early
The supplement also asks everyone who reports voting how they voted, in person or by mail, and from 2004 whether they voted on Election Day or before it. In 2024, 60%59.7% percentEstimandweighted share of all persons who reported voting, by mail or in person before Election DayInterval95% CI 59.2% to 60.2%n48,387WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationpersons who votedPeriod2024 presidential electionSourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement of those who reported voting had voted by mail or in person before Election Day, and in 2020 the share was 69%69.0% percentEstimandweighted share of all persons who reported voting, by mail or in person before Election DayInterval95% CI 68.5% to 69.4%n55,170WeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationpersons who votedPeriod2020 presidential electionSourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement. Between the two elections the mail share fell and the early in-person share rose. The Election Day share rose as well but stayed below its 2016 level. Voters aged sixty-five and older used the mail more than those aged eighteen to twenty-four in both years. The Census Bureau's report on 2020 describes the rise as a response to changes in election procedures during the pandemic [3]. The Election Assistance Commission's tabulation of administrative records agrees with the survey on the mail and Election Day shares for 2020 [4]. It publishes higher early in-person shares than the survey in both 2020 and 2024 [5], so the survey's split between early and Election Day voting should be read as approximate.
Figure 2
Voting by mail rose to 43.0% of voters in 2020 and fell to 29.0% in 2024, while voting in person before Election Day reached 30.7%
Percent of persons who reported voting, by method and timing, presidential years 1996 to 2024 (the second button shows midterm years); 95% intervals from the Kish effective sample size
Show data
| Year | Election type | Method | Share of voters (%) | 95% CI low | 95% CI high | n respondents |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2004 | Presidential | In person on Election Day | 79.0 | 78.7 | 79.4 | 63,052 |
| 2008 | Presidential | In person on Election Day | 68.9 | 68.5 | 69.3 | 59,975 |
| 2012 | Presidential | In person on Election Day | 66.8 | 66.4 | 67.2 | 59,597 |
| 2016 | Presidential | In person on Election Day | 59.5 | 59.1 | 60.0 | 58,533 |
| 2020 | Presidential | In person on Election Day | 30.4 | 29.9 | 30.8 | 55,170 |
| 2024 | Presidential | In person on Election Day | 39.6 | 39.1 | 40.1 | 48,387 |
| 2004 | Presidential | In person before Election Day | 7.8 | 7.5 | 8.0 | 63,052 |
| 2008 | Presidential | In person before Election Day | 14.2 | 13.9 | 14.6 | 59,975 |
| 2012 | Presidential | In person before Election Day | 14.2 | 13.9 | 14.5 | 59,597 |
| 2016 | Presidential | In person before Election Day | 18.9 | 18.6 | 19.3 | 58,533 |
| 2020 | Presidential | In person before Election Day | 26.0 | 25.6 | 26.4 | 55,170 |
| 2024 | Presidential | In person before Election Day | 30.7 | 30.3 | 31.2 | 48,387 |
| 1996 | Presidential | By mail | 7.8 | 7.6 | 8.1 | 50,025 |
| 2000 | Presidential | By mail | 10.1 | 9.8 | 10.4 | 50,010 |
| 2004 | Presidential | By mail | 12.9 | 12.6 | 13.2 | 63,052 |
| 2008 | Presidential | By mail | 16.4 | 16.0 | 16.7 | 59,975 |
| 2012 | Presidential | By mail | 18.5 | 18.1 | 18.8 | 59,597 |
| 2016 | Presidential | By mail | 20.9 | 20.5 | 21.3 | 58,533 |
| 2020 | Presidential | By mail | 43.0 | 42.5 | 43.4 | 55,170 |
| 2024 | Presidential | By mail | 29.0 | 28.5 | 29.4 | 48,387 |
| 2006 | Midterm | In person on Election Day | 80.1 | 79.7 | 80.5 | 47,175 |
| 2010 | Midterm | In person on Election Day | 73.0 | 72.5 | 73.5 | 44,802 |
| 2014 | Midterm | In person on Election Day | 68.4 | 67.9 | 68.9 | 42,559 |
| 2018 | Midterm | In person on Election Day | 59.6 | 59.1 | 60.1 | 48,337 |
| 2022 | Midterm | In person on Election Day | 49.5 | 48.9 | 50.1 | 39,280 |
| 2006 | Midterm | In person before Election Day | 5.8 | 5.6 | 6.0 | 47,175 |
| 2010 | Midterm | In person before Election Day | 8.3 | 8.0 | 8.6 | 44,802 |
| 2014 | Midterm | In person before Election Day | 10.2 | 9.9 | 10.5 | 42,559 |
| 2018 | Midterm | In person before Election Day | 16.6 | 16.2 | 17.0 | 48,337 |
| 2022 | Midterm | In person before Election Day | 18.0 | 17.6 | 18.5 | 39,280 |
| 1998 | Midterm | By mail | 8.4 | 8.1 | 8.7 | 39,512 |
| 2002 | Midterm | By mail | 10.6 | 10.3 | 10.9 | 47,897 |
| 2006 | Midterm | By mail | 13.7 | 13.4 | 14.1 | 47,175 |
| 2010 | Midterm | By mail | 18.1 | 17.7 | 18.5 | 44,802 |
| 2014 | Midterm | By mail | 20.8 | 20.4 | 21.3 | 42,559 |
| 2018 | Midterm | By mail | 23.1 | 22.7 | 23.6 | 48,337 |
| 2022 | Midterm | By mail | 31.8 | 31.2 | 32.3 | 39,280 |
Follow the two colored lines. The mail line climbs to its peak in 2020 and falls back in 2024, while the early in-person line rises from 2004 to 2024. The grey line is voting in person on Election Day, which falls from 2004 to 2020 and rises in 2024 while staying below its 2016 level. Each point is a weighted share of persons who reported voting, with its 95% interval, and the three shares fall short of the whole because voters who did not know or refused are not plotted. Values in Table 8.
The survey count against the ballots counted
Surveys of reported turnout run above official turnout, and over-reporting is more common in some groups than in others [6]. The chapter sets the weighted number of adults who reported voting against the ballots counted for president in each presidential year, a full count. The survey count ran above the ballot count in every election from 1976 to 2000 and was within 3%3% percent of ballots counted for presidentEstimandlargest absolute difference between the CPS count of reported voters and the certified presidential totalWeightsVOSUPPWTPopulationvoters in the CPS estimate, all residents 18 and olderPeriod2004 to 2024 presidential electionsSourceCPS Voting and Registration Supplement of it in every election from 2004 to 2024, below it in 2020. Two things push in opposite directions. People who say they voted when they did not raise the count, nonrespondents counted as nonvoters lower it, and nonresponse rose from 2004 to 2020. The narrowing is consistent with that rise, but the data do not test it, and a comparison of counts does not test the CPS denominator. The over-reporters in the validated-vote study cited above were more often the better educated, so the education gradient and the registered shares of graduates may be overstated by an amount the data do not give. The gaps between groups are associations across groups in one survey year. They describe who votes, and they do not show that a degree or an income changes anyone's probability of voting.
Figure 3
The CPS count of reported voters exceeded the ballots counted for president by 6.0% to 11.6% through 2000 and was within 3% of them from 2004 to 2024
Millions of persons: ballots counted for president against the CPS weighted number of adults 18 and older who reported voting, presidential years 1976 to 2024; the CPS interval is the 95% interval from the Kish effective sample size
- Ballots counted for president
- CPS reported voters
Show data
| Election | Ballots counted for president (millions) | CPS reported voters (millions) | 95% CI low (millions) | 95% CI high (millions) | n respondents |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1976 | 81.6 | 86.7 | 86.2 | 87.2 | 89,090 |
| 1980 | 86.5 | 94.8 | 94.3 | 95.3 | 123,591 |
| 1984 | 92.7 | 101.9 | 101.3 | 102.4 | 110,115 |
| 1988 | 91.6 | 102.2 | 101.6 | 102.9 | 102,945 |
| 1992 | 104.6 | 113.4 | 112.8 | 114.0 | 105,987 |
| 1996 | 96.4 | 105.0 | 104.3 | 105.7 | 89,609 |
| 2000 | 105.6 | 111.9 | 111.2 | 112.7 | 88,884 |
| 2004 | 122.3 | 125.7 | 125.0 | 126.5 | 103,696 |
| 2008 | 131.4 | 131.1 | 130.4 | 131.9 | 99,556 |
| 2012 | 129.1 | 132.9 | 132.1 | 133.8 | 101,568 |
| 2016 | 136.8 | 137.5 | 136.7 | 138.4 | 100,946 |
| 2020 | 158.5 | 154.6 | 153.7 | 155.6 | 87,589 |
| 2024 | 155.4 | 154.3 | 153.3 | 155.3 | 78,650 |
In every election through 2000 the CPS dot sits to the right of the ring, above the count, and from 2004 the two are close. In 2020 the dot sits to the left of the ring, below the count. The ring is the number of ballots with a presidential vote, a full count with no interval. The dot is the weighted number of adults who reported voting in the CPS, with its 95% interval. Values in Table 9.
What this survey cannot tell you
The CPS reports what people say, and the extract has no validated vote, so the amount of over-reporting in any group is unknown. The supplements interview different people each time, so they cannot say whether a group's turnout changed because its members changed their behavior or because the group's composition changed. Citizens are not the same as eligible voters: the citizen count includes people barred by a conviction or by residence rules and leaves out citizens in institutions and abroad. Chapter 3.2, The two coalitions compares the voters with all eligible adults, a different question from the rates here. The intervals treat the weighted sample as a simple random sample and leave out the clustering and stratification of the CPS design, so every interval is too narrow by an unknown factor.
Go deeper
- The report: every estimate with its interval and sample size.
- Tables: every figure of the report as a table.
Data sources
- CPS Voting and Registration SupplementIPUMS-CPS November Voting and Registration Supplement, 25 biennial supplements 1976-2024; citizens from 1994Years: 1976-2024 (25 November samples, biennial, even years) · Weights: VOSUPPWT (supplement person weight) · License: IPUMS CPS conditions of use: a free extract after registration, no fee may be charged for the data, IPUMS must be cited, and publications are to be added to the IPUMS bibliography. The underlying Census Bureau data are public domain.
- State presidential returnsState presidential returns 1976-2024, used only for the certified national total of ballots counted for presidentYears: 1976-2024 (13 elections) · Weights: none (full counts) · License: See the provider's terms of use.
- ANES Cumulative Data FileCumulative Data File 1976-2024, self-reported turnout in presidential years, as a comparison of levelsYears: 1948-2024 (33 study years; even years only after 2004; no 2006, 2010 or 2014 study) · Weights: weight_postelection (VCF9999) · License: Free download after accepting the ANES terms of use; cite the release.
References
- Hur, Aram; Achen, Christopher H. (2013). Coding Voter Turnout Responses in the Current Population Survey. Public Opinion Quarterly 77(4): 985-993. doi:10.1093/poq/nft042
- McDonald, Michael P.; Popkin, Samuel L. (2001). The Myth of the Vanishing Voter. American Political Science Review 95(4): 963-974. doi:10.1017/S0003055400400134
- Fabina, Jacob; Scherer, Zach (2022). Voting and Registration in the Election of November 2020. U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports P20-585. www.census.gov/library/publications/2022/demo/p20-585.html
- U.S. Election Assistance Commission (2021). Election Administration and Voting Survey 2020 Comprehensive Report. A Report from the U.S. Election Assistance Commission to the 117th Congress. www.eac.gov/sites/default/files/document_library/files/2020_EAVS_Report_Final_508c.pdf
- U.S. Election Assistance Commission (2025). Election Administration and Voting Survey 2024 Comprehensive Report. A Report from the U.S. Election Assistance Commission to the 119th Congress. www.eac.gov/sites/default/files/2025-07/2024_EAVS_Report_508.pdf
- Bernstein, Robert; Chadha, Anita; Montjoy, Robert (2001). Overreporting Voting: Why It Happens and Why It Matters. Public Opinion Quarterly 65(1): 22-44. doi:10.1086/320036
How to cite
@misc{singh2026turnout,
author = {Singh, Vishal},
title = {Turnout},
year = {2026},
url = {https://vishalsingh.org/politics/turnout},
note = {In The Public Mind. Published 3 October 2026.}
}