Chapter 4.3 · Two ladders, one street · Report

Race, income and mobility

White children from low-income families born in 1978 to 1983 reached a higher adult income rank than Black children raised in the same tract in 92.5% of the 30,997 tracts where both are estimated.

Author: Vishal Singh
Affiliation: NYU Stern
Published: 9 October 2026

Every estimate of the chapter with its interval and every figure as a table, generated from the chapter's data files. Table n of this report is figure n of the chapter. The same report as Markdown: report.md.

Identification

Title

Race, income and mobility

Label

Two ladders, one street

Chapter

4.3 (Part IV, Becoming an adult; An American life)

Question

How much does a child's adult income depend on the tract where the child grew up, on parental income and on race, and what predicts upward mobility across counties?

Dek

White children from low-income families born in 1978 to 1983 reached a higher adult income rank than Black children raised in the same tract in 92.5% of the 30,997 tracts where both are estimated.

Grain

neighborhoods

Status

published

Published

9 October 2026

Updated

not revised

Data sources

Opportunity Atlas. Tract and county outcomes of children born 1978 to 1983, native 2010 tracts, ranks as percentiles; income measured in 2014 to 2015; years: 1978-1983 birth cohorts (2018 release); weights: 2010 census tract population for tract comparisons; county population for county summaries
Social Capital Atlas. Economic connectedness and network measures, county and ZIP code, 2022; years: 2022 (friendship snapshot); weights: 2018 population (Social Capital Atlas)
County Health Rankings. County Health Rankings 2024: life expectancy by race (deaths 2019 to 2021), premature death by race, Black-white residential segregation; years: 2024 release; weights: county total population; each county once where stated
American Community Survey. ACS 2019 to 2023 tract file, aggregated to counties for the connectedness regression; years: 2019-2023 (5-year); weights: 2019-2023 tract population
USDA Food Access Research Atlas. 2010 census population of each 2010 tract, from the Food Access Research Atlas file; the food-access flags are not used; years: 2019 release (population from the 2010 census); weights: none (census counts); used as the weight for tract comparisons

Canonical URL

https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/race-income-and-mobility

Markdown

https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/race-income-and-mobility/report.md

BibTeX

@misc{singh2026raceincomeandmobility,
  author = {Singh, Vishal},
  title = {Race, income and mobility},
  year = {2026},
  url = {https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/race-income-and-mobility},
  note = {In ZIP Code Destiny. Published 9 October 2026.}
}

Principal estimates

The facts the dek and the opening prose cite, in order of appearance. Every fact is in the table of all estimates below.

Estimand	Population	Period	Value	Interval	n	Weights	Source	Fact id
share of tracts (each tract counted once) where white children reach a higher mean adult rank than Black children, county-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in tracts where the Atlas estimates both white and Black children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	92.5%	95% CI 91.9% to 93.0%	30,997 tracts	none (each tract counts once)	Opportunity Atlas	pct_below
count of tracts	2010 census tracts with a mean adult income rank for white and for Black children from low-income families and a recorded 2010 population	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	30,997			none (full count)	Opportunity Atlas	n_tracts_lad
mean adult household income rank, population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	white children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution), in tracts where the Atlas also estimates Black children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	44.9	95% CI 44.5 to 45.3	30,997 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	kfr_white
mean adult household income rank, population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	Black children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution), in tracts where the Atlas also estimates white children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	34.6	95% CI 34.3 to 34.9	30,997 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	kfr_black
mean over tracts of the white minus Black gap in adult income rank, population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in tracts where the Atlas estimates both white and Black children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	10.3	95% CI 10.0 to 10.6	30,997 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	kfr_gap

Findings

White children from low-income families reached a higher adult income rank than Black children from low-income families raised in the same census tract in 92.5% of the 30,997 tracts where the Opportunity Atlas estimates both groups.[1] The mean rank, weighted by tract population, was 44.9 for white children and 34.6 for Black children, a gap of 10.3 (95% CI 10.0 to 10.6) percentile points. Both groups were born in 1978 to 1983 to parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution, and the rank is the position they reached in the national distribution of household income in their thirties.

Comparing two groups inside one tract removes the differences between neighborhoods that a county or ZIP code average mixes in. The chapter applies the same logic to parental income and to life expectancy within counties, and it asks what predicts upward mobility across counties. Every Atlas figure describes children who grew up in the 1980s and 1990s, and none describes the same tracts today.

Upward mobility across counties

The Atlas follows the children of each tract from childhood into adult tax and census records, so it can map how far children from a given parental income level rise.[1] For parents at the 25th percentile, the mean adult rank in a county averages 41.3 across counties weighted by population. It runs from 34.9 in the county at the fifth percentile to 48.4 in the county at the ninety-fifth.

Among the states, means are highest in North Dakota (53.3) and lowest in South Carolina (35.9). The highest state means lie in the Plains and the Mountain West, and the lowest lie in the Southeast (Table 1). The District of Columbia, a single county that is left out of that ranking, has a lower value than any state, 34.9. The map averages over every child in a county, and the next section separates two groups of them.

Table 1. Children from low-income families reach the highest adult income ranks in the Plains and Mountain West and the lowest in the Southeast

Black and white children from the same tract

Because the Atlas reports outcomes by race, it can place children of two groups in one tract, with parents at the same income percentile, and compare them. Table 2 plots one dot per tract. If a tract gave children of both groups the same outcome, its dot would sit on the diagonal. The dot sits below the diagonal in 92.5% of the tracts. A tract has both estimates only where the Atlas can measure enough children of each group, so these tracts are those with sizeable Black and white populations and not a sample of all tracts. They hold 144.8 million people, 46.9% of the 2010 population. The Atlas keeps Hispanic children, of any race, apart from non-Hispanic white, Black and Asian children, and the white, Black and Asian children in this chapter are non-Hispanic.[2]

The gap is wider where white children do best, though by less than a tract-by-tract comparison suggests. Averaging the tracts within each county damps the noise in the tract estimates, and 336 counties have at least 20 tracts with both estimates. In the lowest-ranked third of these counties by white rank, white children ranked 8.4 (95% CI 8.1 to 8.7) points above Black children, and in the highest-ranked third they ranked 11.6 (95% CI 10.8 to 12.1) points above. Across the counties, each point of difference in the white rank goes with a difference of 0.60 (95% CI 0.49 to 0.71) points in the Black rank. Where white children rank higher, Black children rank higher too, by a smaller amount.

Sorting tracts on the white rank itself gives a larger contrast, 5.6 points in the lowest-ranked third and 14.8 in the highest, and a slope of 0.33. Noise in the white estimate both sorts the tracts and enters the white minus Black difference, so the tract figures overstate the contrast.

Table 2. White children from low-income families reached a higher adult income rank than Black children from the same tract in 92.5% of 30,997 tracts

Each tract's estimate for a group rests on a modest number of children, and noise is added to protect privacy. Noise of that kind spreads dots in both directions around the diagonal. It would pull the share of tracts below the diagonal toward an even split, not away from one.

The comparison is not limited to two groups. In tracts where white and Hispanic children are both estimated, Hispanic children ranked 2.6 (95% CI 2.3 to 2.9) points below white children. In tracts where white and Asian children are both estimated, Asian children ranked 9.4 (95% CI 8.9 to 9.8) points above them (Table 3). Each comparison uses its own set of tracts, so the three gaps are not measured on one set of tracts. The Atlas also measures incarceration on Census Day 2010, and Chapter 3.4, School discipline and incarceration reports the same-tract comparison for that outcome.

Table 3. Black children ranked 10.3 points below white children in the same tracts, Hispanic children 2.6 points below and Asian children 9.4 points above

The advantage of a higher-income family, tract by tract

The Atlas also reports adult ranks for children whose parents were at the 75th percentile, with races pooled. The difference between that rank and the rank of children at the 25th percentile is a tract-level measure of the advantage of a higher-income family, which this chapter calls the premium. Across 71,924 tracts the mean rank was 43.2 for children at the 25th percentile and 56.8 for children at the 75th, a premium of 13.6 (95% CI 13.2 to 13.9) points.

The premium varies across tracts, from 5.8 at the fifth percentile of tracts to 21.3 at the ninety-fifth, and sampling noise in the tract estimates widens that range. The premium is smaller where children from low-income families do better. Across tracts, the rank of children at the 75th percentile rises 0.69 (95% CI 0.66 to 0.72) points for each point of the rank of children at the 25th, a line flatter than the diagonal in Table 4. The two ladders sit closer together in tracts where the lower ladder is higher.

Sampling noise in the rank of children at the 25th percentile pulls a tract slope toward zero, so the slope is also estimated on county averages. It is 0.70 (95% CI 0.60 to 0.82) for counties with at least 10 tracts and 0.81 (95% CI 0.69 to 0.91) for counties with at least 100 tracts, higher than the tract slope and still flatter than the diagonal.

Table 4. Children raised at the 75th income percentile reach adult ranks 13.6 points above those raised at the 25th in the same tract, a difference that is smaller where the latter do better

Among the 148 counties with at least 100 tracts, the premium is smallest in the Bronx (8.0). The 8 smallest premiums are all in New York City or California, among them San Francisco (8.9).

The premium is largest in Hamilton County, Ohio (17.3), and Luzerne County, Pennsylvania (16.9). A small premium is not a sign of a better place for children from low-income families. In the Bronx, children at the 25th percentile reached a mean rank of 39.9 and children at the 75th percentile reached 47.9, both below the mean for all tracts. In San Francisco the ranks were 50.3 and 59.2, both above it.

Friendships across incomes and upward mobility

Across counties, upward mobility moves with who a place's residents befriend. The Social Capital Atlas builds economic connectedness from the friendships of Facebook users. It compares the share of high-status friends among people with below-median status to the share expected if friendships ignored status.[3] Across 2,942 counties, economic connectedness correlates +0.69 (95% CI 0.64 to 0.74) with the mean adult rank of children from low-income families, weighted by population.

That correlation is larger than the correlation of any civic or cohesion measure with mobility (Table 5). The density of civic organizations correlates +0.06 (95% CI −0.01 to 0.14) with it, the volunteering rate +0.19 (95% CI 0.12 to 0.25) and the network support ratio −0.25 (95% CI −0.33 to −0.17). Civic participation is the subject of Chapter 6.2, Civic life, loneliness and partnership.

Table 5. Across counties, economic connectedness correlates +0.69 with upward mobility, more than any civic or cohesion measure

Connectedness also moves with income. Across 18,896 ZIP code areas (ZCTAs), economic connectedness correlates +0.82 (95% CI 0.81 to 0.83) with the area's rank in median household income. Its mean is 0.57 (95% CI 0.56 to 0.58) in the lowest tenth of areas by median income and 1.19 (95% CI 1.16 to 1.21) in the highest tenth. Because connectedness is higher where incomes are higher, the county correlation could partly reflect income.

A weighted regression puts the log of median household income, the Black share of residents, the share with a college degree and the poverty rate beside connectedness. In it, the standardized coefficient on economic connectedness is 0.56 (95% CI 0.42 to 0.70) and the coefficient on the log of income is 0.46 (95% CI 0.26 to 0.67). The difference between them is 0.10 (95% CI −0.16 to 0.36), and its interval includes zero, so the data do not rank the two. The coefficient on connectedness stays positive with income in the model.

Economic connectedness is measured in 2022, long after the 1978 to 1983 cohorts grew up. The correlation links a recent network measure to an earlier cohort, and the data cannot show that friendships across incomes change a child's later income.

Life expectancy of Black and white residents of the same county

The comparison inside one place extends to adult health. In County Health Rankings, 1,265 counties publish a life expectancy for both non-Hispanic white and non-Hispanic Black residents, for deaths in 2019 to 2021.[4] White life expectancy exceeds Black by 4.4 (95% CI 4.0 to 4.8) years when counties count in proportion to their population, and by 3.5 (95% CI 3.3 to 3.7) years when each county counts once.

The population-weighted means are 78.1 years for white residents and 73.7 years for Black residents. White life expectancy is the higher in 89% of these counties, and the counties hold 98% of the non-Hispanic Black residents of all counties in the file.

Table 6 shows the 20 most populous counties in that sample. The gap is positive in each, from 1.1 (95% CI 0.7 to 1.5) years in Broward County, Florida, to 9.9 (95% CI 9.7 to 10.2) years in Cook County, Illinois. Among all 1,265 counties, the widest gap is in the District of Columbia, at 17.7 (95% CI 17.0 to 18.3) years.

Table 6. In each of the 20 most populous counties, white residents live longer than Black residents, by 1.1 to 9.9 years

In 140 counties the estimate for Black residents is the higher. County Health Rankings publishes an interval for each estimate. The two intervals separate in that direction in only 9 counties, against 677 counties where the interval for white residents lies entirely above the interval for Black residents. The counties with a higher Black estimate have a median population of 59,039, below the 82,911 median of the sample, which is consistent with noisier estimates in smaller counties.

The gap extends to premature mortality, which County Health Rankings measures as age-adjusted deaths of residents under age 75 per hundred thousand residents. Across 1,242 of these counties that report both rates, the population-weighted mean for Black residents is 1.5 (95% CI 1.5 to 1.6) times the mean for white residents. This is a death rate and not the years of potential life lost. Infant mortality by race is covered in Chapter 2.2, Infant mortality.

The gap is wider where residents are more segregated. The Black-white index of dissimilarity gives the share of either group that would have to move for the two to be spread evenly across tracts. Its population-weighted correlation with the gap is +0.30 (95% CI 0.14 to 0.45) across 1,260 counties. Within states, each additional point of the index goes with 0.06 (95% CI 0.00 to 0.12) more years of gap (state fixed effects), and the lower end of that interval is close to zero.

Race, place and their interaction

Life expectancy differs across counties and between the two groups, and a decomposition says how much of the variation each source holds. The cells are the county-by-race life expectancies, a white and a Black estimate for each of the 1,265 counties. The variance across the cells splits into three parts. Place is the spread of the county averages, race is the average white-Black gap, and the interaction is the spread of the gap across counties. Weighted by county population, place accounts for 53% (95% CI 48% to 58%) of the variance, race for 31% (95% CI 26% to 37%) and the interaction for 16% (95% CI 13% to 19%).

When each county counts once, the shares are 64% (95% CI 62% to 66%) for place, 19% (95% CI 17% to 22%) for race and 17% (95% CI 15% to 19%) for the interaction. The race share is larger when large counties carry more weight, because the average gap is larger there, so the chapter reports both.

Table 7. Place accounts for 53% of the variance in county life expectancy by race, race for 31% and their interaction for 16%

Weighted by county population, the 90th percentile of Black life expectancy across counties is 78.2 years, above the 10th percentile of white life expectancy, 74.4 years. The two groups' distributions across places overlap, and the white estimate is still the higher in 89% of counties.

Causal evidenceRandomized housing-voucher experiment; movers design

Whether place changes a child's adult outcomes

The comparisons above describe differences across places and groups. Two designs test whether place changes a child's own outcome.

Moving to Opportunity was a randomized housing-voucher experiment. Families in high-poverty public housing were randomly assigned to be offered a voucher that could be used only in a low-poverty neighborhood, to be offered an unrestricted voucher, or to stay in public housing. Chetty, Hendren and Katz followed the children into adulthood and found that those who were young when their families moved earned more and attended college more often as adults, while the estimated effects were negative for children who were teenagers at the move.[5]

Chetty and Hendren used a movers design. They compared children whose families moved between counties and commuting zones when the children were at different ages, including siblings in the same family. Because the age at the move varies while the family stays the same, the design isolates the years a child spent in the destination. Children's adult outcomes moved toward those of children raised in the destination in proportion to the years spent there.[6] A companion paper applies the design county by county,[7] and the Opportunity Atlas authors combine the experimental and movers estimates and report that 60% of the variation in outcomes across neighborhoods is driven by causal effects of the neighborhoods.[1]

Neither design tests whether the Black-white gap inside a tract would close if the tract changed. Both estimate how much a move changes a child's own outcome, and neither compares the gap before and after.

What these data cannot show

The patterns here describe tracts, ZIP code areas and counties. The average life expectancy of Black residents of Cook County says little about how long any one Black resident of Cook County will live, because the data are averages for places and groups (ecological inference).

A same-tract comparison removes the differences between neighborhoods but not all differences. Within a tract, families at one income percentile can still differ in wealth, in the exact block, in schooling and in how institutions treat them. The gap is a residual, and the data describe it without explaining it. Chetty, Hendren, Jones and Porter find that the gap in individual adult income between Black and white children raised at the same parental income is concentrated among boys and men. They find it smaller in tracts with lower poverty and a higher share of Black fathers present, a comparison across places and not an experiment.[2] The ranks here pool boys and girls and measure household income, which includes a spouse's income, because race by gender is not available in the staged data (see Chapter 4.4, Boys and mobility (planned)).

The Atlas estimates are for children born in 1978 to 1983 and observed in 2014 to 2015. Each tract estimate rests on a modest number of children and carries privacy noise, which is not clipped. Tracts weigh in by their 2010 population because the file has no child counts, and the tracts with both estimates are those with enough children of both groups.

The life-expectancy estimates are computed from death counts that are small in small counties, so the share of counties with a reversed gap and the shares in the decomposition include sampling noise. County Health Rankings counts Black and white residents who are not Hispanic, and the index of dissimilarity is measured for 2018 to 2022. The connectedness measures come from active Facebook users and describe places in 2022, and the regression cannot separate connectedness from income more finely than its interval allows. Puerto Rico has Atlas estimates but is not drawn on the maps, and Connecticut is missing from the regression because its tract codes differ across the files.

Tables

Table 1. Children from low-income families reach the highest adult income ranks in the Plains and Mountain West and the lowest in the Southeast

Mean adult household income rank (percentile) of children born 1978 to 1983 to parents at the 25th income percentile, by county of childhood

No inline rows: the values of Table 1 are in /data/race-income-and-mobility/mobility_map.json.

Note: Each gray county has the reason for its missing value in its tooltip. Puerto Rico has estimates in the Atlas but is not drawn.

Note: The county estimates are model-based and carry privacy noise, so single small counties are noisy. The Atlas lists Connecticut under its legacy counties, which are the eight drawn here, and Valdez-Cordova Census Area (split in 2019) is drawn as its two successors with the same value.

Note: Alaska is drawn. The Atlas estimates cover 1978 to 1983 birth cohorts and describe where children grew up, not the counties today.

Source: Opportunity Atlas county outcomes, 1978-1983 birth cohorts; modeled estimates, not weighted

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/mobility_map.json

Table 2. White children from low-income families reached a higher adult income rank than Black children from the same tract in 92.5% of 30,997 tracts

Adult household income rank (percentile) of Black children against white children raised in the same census tract by parents at the 25th income percentile, one dot per tract

No inline rows: the values of Table 2 are in /data/race-income-and-mobility/same_tract_black_white.json.

Note: The dots are a random sample of 5,000 tracts inside the plotted range (seed 12345); every estimate in the text uses all 30,997 tracts. Tracts have a Black and a white estimate only where the Atlas has enough children of both groups, so they are not a sample of all tracts.

Note: The markers average the tracts of each county that has at least 20 tracts with both estimates, because sorting tracts on the noisy white rank would flatten a line of tract means and widen the apparent contrast. Each tract is weighted by its 2010 census population, the nearest available stand-in for the number of children. Ranks are percentiles of the national distribution of household income for children born in 1978 to 1983, measured in 2014 to 2015. The Opportunity Atlas adds noise to its estimates to protect privacy and the staged values are never clipped, so a few fall outside 0 to 100.

Source: Opportunity Atlas tract outcomes, 2010 tracts, 1978-1983 birth cohorts; population-weighted (2010 tract population), modeled estimates

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/same_tract_black_white.json

Table 3. Black children ranked 10.3 points below white children in the same tracts, Hispanic children 2.6 points below and Asian children 9.4 points above

Mean adult household income rank of each group minus that of white children raised in the same tract by parents at the 25th income percentile, tracts where both are estimated

conf_high	conf_low	estimate	group	n
−10.03	−10.60	−10.31	Black children	30,997
−2.32	−2.92	−2.61	Hispanic children	35,579
9.83	8.89	9.37	Asian children	15,078

Note: Each row uses its own set of tracts, the tracts where that group and white children both have an estimate, so the rows are not a single sample. The number of tracts is in each row's tooltip. Ranks are percentiles of the national distribution of household income for children born in 1978 to 1983, measured in 2014 to 2015. The Opportunity Atlas adds noise to its estimates to protect privacy and the staged values are never clipped, so a few fall outside 0 to 100.

Source: Opportunity Atlas tract outcomes, 2010 tracts, 1978-1983 birth cohorts; population-weighted (2010 tract population), modeled estimates

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/group_gaps_same_tract.json

Table 4. Children raised at the 75th income percentile reach adult ranks 13.6 points above those raised at the 25th in the same tract, a difference that is smaller where the latter do better

Adult household income rank (percentile) of children raised at the 75th income percentile against those raised at the 25th, one dot per tract, races pooled

No inline rows: the values of Table 4 are in /data/race-income-and-mobility/born_rich_premium.json.

Note: The dots are a random sample of 5,000 tracts inside the plotted range (seed 12345); the means, slope and intervals use all 71,924 tracts with both estimates.

Note: The fitted line is the population-weighted least-squares line through the tracts, with slope 0.69. Sampling noise in the 25th-percentile rank pulls a tract slope toward zero. Averaging tracts to counties damps that noise: the slope is 0.70 for counties with at least 10 tracts and 0.81 for counties with at least 100, and all of them are flatter than the diagonal. Ranks are percentiles of the national distribution of household income for children born in 1978 to 1983, measured in 2014 to 2015. The Opportunity Atlas adds noise to its estimates to protect privacy and the staged values are never clipped, so a few fall outside 0 to 100.

Source: Opportunity Atlas tract outcomes, 2010 tracts, 1978-1983 birth cohorts; population-weighted (2010 tract population), modeled estimates

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/born_rich_premium.json

Table 5. Across counties, economic connectedness correlates +0.69 with upward mobility, more than any civic or cohesion measure

Population-weighted correlation of each Social Capital Atlas county measure with the mean adult income rank of children from low-income families

conf_high	conf_low	estimate	group	measure	n
0.741	0.644	0.693	Contact across incomes	Economic connectedness	2,942
0.734	0.650	0.695	Contact across incomes	Exposure to high-income friends	2,939
−0.076	−0.316	−0.192	Contact across incomes	Friending bias	2,939
0.117	−0.012	0.052	Cohesion	Network clustering	2,983
−0.168	−0.332	−0.254	Cohesion	Support ratio	2,983
0.253	0.121	0.187	Civic life	Volunteering rate	2,983
0.138	−0.011	0.062	Civic life	Civic organizations	2,983

Note: Economic connectedness is built from Facebook friendships among active users in 2022, while the mobility ranks describe children who grew up in the 1980s and 1990s, so the correlation links a recent network measure to an earlier cohort.

Note: Intervals resample whole counties. Counties in one state tend to resemble each other, and resampling whole states gives a wider interval for every measure.

Note: Counties with a missing measure drop out of that row only, so the number of counties differs by row.

Source: Social Capital Atlas county measures, 2022, and Opportunity Atlas county outcomes, 1978-1983 birth cohorts; population-weighted (2018 county population)

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/connectedness_horse_race.json

Table 6. In each of the 20 most populous counties, white residents live longer than Black residents, by 1.1 to 9.9 years

Life expectancy at birth in years, non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white residents, for the most populous counties with both estimates, deaths in 2019 to 2021

county	hi_black	hi_white	le_black	le_white	lo_black	lo_white	population
Cook County, IL	70.41	80.28	70.23	80.17	70.04	80.06	5109292
Alameda County, CA	73.56	81.60	73.07	81.37	72.59	81.15	1628997
Wayne County, MI	69.01	76.61	68.77	76.43	68.53	76.25	1757043
Los Angeles County, CA	73.40	79.93	73.19	79.84	72.97	79.74	9721138
Maricopa County, AZ	73.51	79.17	73.08	79.06	72.65	78.95	4551524
King County, WA	76.03	81.56	75.48	81.41	74.92	81.26	2266789
Miami-Dade County, FL	73.69	78.80	73.37	78.53	73.06	78.25	2673837
Harris County, TX	72.89	77.81	72.68	77.67	72.47	77.52	4780913
San Diego County, CA	76.09	80.64	75.56	80.51	75.04	80.37	3276208
Dallas County, TX	72.92	77.72	72.67	77.53	72.42	77.34	2600840
Kings County, NY	77.81	82.14	77.57	81.97	77.33	81.79	2590516
Clark County, NV	72.18	76.33	71.80	76.15	71.42	75.98	2322985
Santa Clara County, CA	79.30	82.61	78.26	82.40	77.21	82.18	1870945
San Bernardino County, CA	71.37	74.84	70.92	74.61	70.46	74.39	2193656
Riverside County, CA	74.90	77.92	74.39	77.72	73.88	77.53	2473902
Tarrant County, TX	74.29	77.28	73.95	77.11	73.61	76.94	2154595
Orange County, CA	78.78	81.01	77.87	80.86	76.96	80.72	3151184
Queens County, NY	77.92	80.61	77.62	80.39	77.31	80.17	2278029
Bexar County, TX	74.40	76.82	73.89	76.59	73.38	76.36	2059530
Broward County, FL	77.48	78.50	77.18	78.28	76.88	78.05	1947026

Note: County Health Rankings computes life expectancy from NCHS death counts for racial and ethnic groups that do not overlap, so the Black and white groups here are non-Hispanic and exclude Hispanic residents of any race. Counties with fewer deaths have wider intervals, and the intervals in this figure are County Health Rankings' own.

Note: The counties are the most populous ones among those with both estimates, which is the sample behind the headline gap.

Source: County Health Rankings 2024 (NCHS deaths 2019-2021); full counts of deaths, county life expectancy by race

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/le_black_white_counties.json

Table 7. Place accounts for 53% of the variance in county life expectancy by race, race for 31% and their interaction for 16%

Shares of the variance of county-by-race life expectancy (a non-Hispanic white and a non-Hispanic Black estimate for each county), percent, deaths in 2019 to 2021

Weighting	Component	Share of variance (%)	Lower limit of the 95% interval	Upper limit of the 95% interval
Weighted by county population	Place	53.0	47.5	58.5
Weighted by county population	Race	31.3	25.7	37.1
Weighted by county population	Race-by-place interaction	15.7	13.0	18.8
Each county counted once	Place	64.1	61.8	66.5
Each county counted once	Race	19.1	16.7	21.7
Each county counted once	Race-by-place interaction	16.8	15.0	18.6

Note: Shares are exact for the county estimates in the file and sum to 100 in each bar. The 95% intervals in the table come from a bootstrap over counties.

Note: The estimates carry sampling noise that is largest in small counties; the noise sits inside the place and interaction shares and is not removed.

Note: Both groups of a county get the same weight, which keeps the split exact: the interaction equals the variance of the county gaps divided by four.

Source: County Health Rankings 2024 (NCHS deaths 2019-2021); full counts of deaths, weighted by county population in the first bar and unweighted in the second

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/le_variance_race_place.json

All estimates

Every fact in facts.json (91), sorted by id. The same values as JSON: facts.json.

Fact id	Value	Unit	Estimand	Population	Period	Interval	n	Weights	Source	Note
best_black	78.2	years of life expectancy at birth	90th percentile of county Black life expectancy, weighted by county population	Black residents of the counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)		1,265 counties	county total population	County Health Rankings
beta_diff	0.10	standard deviations of the county mobility rank per standard deviation of the measure	standardized coefficient on economic connectedness minus the coefficient on log median income, same regression, errors clustered on state	counties with a Social Capital Atlas measure and an Opportunity Atlas mobility rank and ACS controls (Connecticut left out)	friendships among Facebook users in 2022; mobility for children born 1978 to 1983; ACS 2019 to 2023	95% CI −0.16 to 0.36	2,933 counties	2018 county population (Social Capital Atlas)	Social Capital Atlas
black_share_covered	98%	percent of non-Hispanic Black residents	share of non-Hispanic Black residents living in counties with both race-specific estimates	residents of the counties in County Health Rankings	County Health Rankings 2024 release (population estimates for 2022)		3,143 counties	county population times its non-Hispanic Black share	County Health Rankings
bronx_p25	39.9	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	population-weighted mean adult household income rank over the county's tracts	children raised at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution in Bronx County	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		328 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
bronx_p75	47.9	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	population-weighted mean adult household income rank over the county's tracts	children raised at the 75th percentile of the national income distribution in Bronx County	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		328 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
civic_r	+0.06	correlation coefficient	population-weighted correlation of the county civic organizations with the county mobility rank, bootstrap interval over counties	counties with a Social Capital Atlas measure and an Opportunity Atlas mobility rank	friendships among Facebook users in 2022; mobility for children born 1978 to 1983	95% CI −0.01 to 0.14	2,983 counties	2018 county population (Social Capital Atlas)	Social Capital Atlas
conv_slope	0.69	percentile points of the 75th-percentile family's rank per point of the 25th-percentile family's rank	slope of the tract's 75th-percentile rank on its 25th-percentile rank, population-weighted, county-bootstrap interval	children raised in families at the 25th and the 75th percentile of the national income distribution, in tracts where the Atlas estimates both	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 0.66 to 0.72	71,924 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
conv_slope_county	0.70	percentile points of the 75th-percentile family's rank per point of the 25th-percentile family's rank	slope of the county mean 75th-percentile rank on the county mean 25th-percentile rank, weighted by 2010 population, state-bootstrap interval	counties with at least 10 tracts in the premium sample	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 0.60 to 0.82	1,172 counties	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	Averaging tracts within counties damps sampling noise in the tract estimates; the slope rises with the minimum number of tracts.
conv_slope_county_big	0.81	percentile points of the 75th-percentile family's rank per point of the 25th-percentile family's rank	slope of the county mean 75th-percentile rank on the county mean 25th-percentile rank, weighted by 2010 population, state-bootstrap interval	counties with at least 100 tracts in the premium sample	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 0.69 to 0.91	148 counties	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
cook_gap	9.9	years of life expectancy at birth, white minus Black	white minus Black county life expectancy; the interval combines County Health Rankings' two 95% intervals assuming independence	residents of Cook County, Illinois	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 9.7 to 10.2		none (one county)	County Health Rankings
dc_gap	17.7	years of life expectancy at birth, white minus Black	white minus Black county life expectancy; the interval combines County Health Rankings' two 95% intervals assuming independence	residents of the District of Columbia	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 17.0 to 18.3		none (one county)	County Health Rankings
ec_beta	0.56	standard deviations of the county mobility rank per standard deviation of the measure	standardized coefficient on economic connectedness in a weighted regression with controls for log median income, percent Black, percent with a college degree and percent below poverty, errors clustered on state	counties with a Social Capital Atlas measure and an Opportunity Atlas mobility rank and ACS controls (Connecticut left out)	friendships among Facebook users in 2022; mobility for children born 1978 to 1983; ACS 2019 to 2023	95% CI 0.42 to 0.70	2,933 counties	2018 county population (Social Capital Atlas)	Social Capital Atlas
ec_n	2,942	counties	count of counties with economic connectedness and a mobility rank	counties with a Social Capital Atlas measure and an Opportunity Atlas mobility rank	friendships among Facebook users in 2022; mobility for children born 1978 to 1983			none (full count)	Social Capital Atlas
ec_poor	0.57	economic connectedness (ratio)	population-weighted mean of ZIP economic connectedness, bootstrap interval over counties	ZIP code areas (ZCTAs) in the lowest tenth of median household income	friendships among Facebook users in 2022; income ACS 2019 to 2023	95% CI 0.56 to 0.58	1,889 ZIP code areas	2018 ZIP population (Social Capital Atlas)	Social Capital Atlas
ec_r	+0.69	correlation coefficient	population-weighted correlation of the county economic connectedness with the county mobility rank, bootstrap interval over counties	counties with a Social Capital Atlas measure and an Opportunity Atlas mobility rank	friendships among Facebook users in 2022; mobility for children born 1978 to 1983	95% CI 0.64 to 0.74	2,942 counties	2018 county population (Social Capital Atlas)	Social Capital Atlas
ec_rich	1.19	economic connectedness (ratio)	population-weighted mean of ZIP economic connectedness, bootstrap interval over counties	ZIP code areas (ZCTAs) in the highest tenth of median household income	friendships among Facebook users in 2022; income ACS 2019 to 2023	95% CI 1.16 to 1.21	1,890 ZIP code areas	2018 ZIP population (Social Capital Atlas)	Social Capital Atlas
gap_high_third	11.6	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, white minus Black	mean of the county white minus Black gap in adult income rank within a third of counties (equal numbers of counties, ranked by the county mean white rank), weighted by 2010 population summed to the county, state-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in counties with at least 20 tracts that have both estimates, in the third of those counties with the highest mean rank for white children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 10.8 to 12.1	112 counties	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
gap_high_third_tract	14.8	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, white minus Black	mean white minus Black gap in adult income rank within a third of tracts (equal numbers of tracts, ranked by the white rank), population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in tracts where the Atlas estimates both white and Black children in the third of tracts with the highest mean rank for white children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 14.4 to 15.2	10,333 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	Sorting on the noisy white rank itself builds part of this contrast into the thirds.
gap_hisp	2.6	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, white minus Hispanic	mean over tracts of the white minus Hispanic gap in adult income rank, population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in tracts where the Atlas estimates both white and Hispanic children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 2.3 to 2.9	35,579 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
gap_low_third	8.4	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, white minus Black	mean of the county white minus Black gap in adult income rank within a third of counties (equal numbers of counties, ranked by the county mean white rank), weighted by 2010 population summed to the county, state-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in counties with at least 20 tracts that have both estimates, in the third of those counties with the lowest mean rank for white children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 8.1 to 8.7	112 counties	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
gap_low_third_tract	5.6	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, white minus Black	mean white minus Black gap in adult income rank within a third of tracts (equal numbers of tracts, ranked by the white rank), population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in tracts where the Atlas estimates both white and Black children in the third of tracts with the lowest mean rank for white children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 5.4 to 5.8	10,332 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	Sorting on the noisy white rank itself builds part of this contrast into the thirds.
gap_min_big	1.1	years of life expectancy at birth, white minus Black	white minus Black county life expectancy; the interval combines County Health Rankings' two 95% intervals assuming independence	residents of Broward County, FL, the county with the smallest gap among the most populous counties	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 0.7 to 1.5		none (one county)	County Health Rankings
inc_beta	0.46	standard deviations of the county mobility rank per standard deviation of the measure	standardized coefficient on the log of median household income in a weighted regression with controls for log median income, percent Black, percent with a college degree and percent below poverty, errors clustered on state	counties with a Social Capital Atlas measure and an Opportunity Atlas mobility rank and ACS controls (Connecticut left out)	friendships among Facebook users in 2022; mobility for children born 1978 to 1983; ACS 2019 to 2023	95% CI 0.26 to 0.67	2,933 counties	2018 county population (Social Capital Atlas)	Social Capital Atlas
kfr_black	34.6	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	mean adult household income rank, population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	Black children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution), in tracts where the Atlas also estimates white children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 34.3 to 34.9	30,997 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	Counting each tract once gives a similar mean.
kfr_dc	34.9	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	county value from the Opportunity Atlas	children raised in low-income families in the District of Columbia, a single county that is left out of the ranking of states	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		1 counties	none (one county)	Opportunity Atlas
kfr_gap	10.3	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, white minus Black	mean over tracts of the white minus Black gap in adult income rank, population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in tracts where the Atlas estimates both white and Black children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 10.0 to 10.6	30,997 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	Counting each tract once gives a similar gap.
kfr_mean	41.3	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	population-weighted mean of the county values	counties with an estimate for children raised at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		3,136 counties	county population in County Health Rankings 2024	Opportunity Atlas
kfr_p5	34.9	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	population-weighted 5th percentile of the county values	counties with an estimate for children raised at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		3,136 counties	county population in County Health Rankings 2024	Opportunity Atlas
kfr_p95	48.4	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	population-weighted 95th percentile of the county values	counties with an estimate for children raised at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		3,136 counties	county population in County Health Rankings 2024	Opportunity Atlas
kfr_state_high	53.3	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	state mean of the county values, weighted by county population	counties with an estimate for children raised at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution in the state with the highest mean, among the 50 states (DC left out)	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		53 counties	county population in County Health Rankings 2024	Opportunity Atlas
kfr_state_low	35.9	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	state mean of the county values, weighted by county population	counties with an estimate for children raised at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution in the state with the lowest mean, among the 50 states (DC left out)	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		46 counties	county population in County Health Rankings 2024	Opportunity Atlas
kfr_white	44.9	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	mean adult household income rank, population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	white children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution), in tracts where the Atlas also estimates Black children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 44.5 to 45.3	30,997 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	Counting each tract once gives a similar mean.
le_b	73.7	years of life expectancy at birth	mean of county life expectancy, weighted by county population, bootstrap interval over counties	Black residents of the counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 73.4 to 74.1	1,265 counties	county total population	County Health Rankings
le_gap	4.4	years of life expectancy at birth, non-Hispanic white minus non-Hispanic Black	mean of the county non-Hispanic white minus non-Hispanic Black gap in life expectancy, weighted by county population, bootstrap interval over counties	counties with both a non-Hispanic white and a non-Hispanic Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 4.0 to 4.8	1,265 counties	county total population	County Health Rankings	County Health Rankings publishes a race-specific life expectancy only where deaths are numerous enough. These 1,265 counties hold 98 percent of the non-Hispanic Black residents of all counties in the file. Interval: bootstrap over counties.
le_gap_unweighted	3.5	years of life expectancy at birth, non-Hispanic white minus non-Hispanic Black	mean of the county non-Hispanic white minus non-Hispanic Black gap in life expectancy, each county counted once, bootstrap interval over counties	counties with both a non-Hispanic white and a non-Hispanic Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 3.3 to 3.7	1,265 counties	none (each county counts once)	County Health Rankings	County Health Rankings publishes a race-specific life expectancy only where deaths are numerous enough. These 1,265 counties hold 98 percent of the non-Hispanic Black residents of all counties in the file. Interval: bootstrap over counties.
le_w	78.1	years of life expectancy at birth	mean of county life expectancy, weighted by county population, bootstrap interval over counties	white residents of the counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 77.8 to 78.4	1,265 counties	county total population	County Health Rankings
lead_asian	9.4	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, Asian minus white	mean over tracts of the Asian minus white gap in adult income rank, population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in tracts where the Atlas estimates both white and Asian children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 8.9 to 9.8	15,078 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
m25	43.2	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	mean adult household income rank, population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	children raised at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution, races pooled	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 42.9 to 43.5	71,924 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
m75	56.8	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	mean adult household income rank, population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	children raised at the 75th percentile of the national income distribution, races pooled	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 56.4 to 57.2	71,924 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
median_pop_all	82,911	people	median of county total population	residents of all the counties in the sample	county population in County Health Rankings 2024		1,265 counties	none (median over counties)	County Health Rankings
min_tracts_county	100	tracts	minimum number of tracts with both estimates for a county to be ranked	counties ranked on the premium	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (inclusion rule)	Opportunity Atlas
min_tracts_gap	20	tracts	minimum number of tracts with both estimates for a county to enter the county version	counties in the county version of the comparison	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (inclusion rule)	Opportunity Atlas
min_tracts_slope	10	tracts	minimum number of tracts with both estimates for a county to enter the slope	counties in the county-level premium slope	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (inclusion rule)	Opportunity Atlas
n_clear_gap	677	counties	count of counties where the 95% interval for white life expectancy lies entirely above the interval for Black life expectancy	counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)			none (full count)	County Health Rankings
n_clear_reversal	9	counties	count of counties where the 95% interval for Black life expectancy lies entirely above the interval for white life expectancy	counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)			none (full count)	County Health Rankings
n_counties_nodata	5	counties	count of drawn counties with no Opportunity Atlas estimate	counties and county equivalents on the map (Puerto Rico not drawn)	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (full count)	Opportunity Atlas
n_dumbbell	20	counties	number of counties drawn in the dumbbell figure	most populous counties in the life-expectancy sample	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)			none (rule)	County Health Rankings
n_gap_counties	336	counties	count of counties in the county version of the comparison	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in counties with at least 20 tracts that have both estimates	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (full count)	Opportunity Atlas
n_le_cty	1,265	counties	count of counties with both estimates	counties with both a non-Hispanic white and a non-Hispanic Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)			none (full count)	County Health Rankings
n_outside_lad	35	tracts	count of tracts outside the plotted range of the same-tract scatter	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in tracts where the Atlas estimates both white and Black children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (full count)	Opportunity Atlas
n_outside_prem	15	tracts	count of tracts outside the plotted range of the premium scatter	children raised in families at the 25th and the 75th percentile of the national income distribution, in tracts where the Atlas estimates both	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (full count)	Opportunity Atlas
n_pm_cty	1,242	counties	count of counties in the premature death comparison	counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings that also report both premature death rates	deaths before age 75 in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)			none (full count)	County Health Rankings
n_prem_counties	148	counties	count of counties with the minimum number of tracts	counties with enough tracts to rank on the premium	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (full count)	Opportunity Atlas
n_prem_lowest	8	counties	number of counties with the smallest premiums examined for their location	counties ranked on the premium	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (rule)	Opportunity Atlas
n_prem_tracts	71,924	tracts	count of tracts	2010 census tracts with a mean adult income rank for both parental income levels and a recorded 2010 population	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (full count)	Opportunity Atlas
n_reversal	140	counties	count of counties where Black life expectancy is higher than white	counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)			none (full count)	County Health Rankings
n_sample	5,000	tracts	size of a random sample drawn with a fixed seed	tracts drawn at random for each scatter plot	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		30,997 tracts	none (sample size)	Opportunity Atlas
n_tracts_lad	30,997	tracts	count of tracts	2010 census tracts with a mean adult income rank for white and for Black children from low-income families and a recorded 2010 population	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (full count)	Opportunity Atlas
n_zip	18,896	ZIP code areas	count of ZIP codes (ZCTAs) in the comparison	ZIP code areas (ZCTAs) with an economic connectedness value and a median household income	friendships among Facebook users in 2022			none (full count)	Social Capital Atlas
oa_causal_share	60%	percent of the variation in adult outcomes across neighborhoods	share of the variation across neighborhoods that experimental and quasi-experimental estimates attribute to causal effects of neighborhoods; reported in the abstract of Chetty, Friedman, Hendren, Jones and Porter (2018), copied from it and not computed in this build	census tracts of the United States, children born 1978 to 1983	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015			none (reported estimate)	Opportunity Atlas	A published estimate, not a result of this build.
pct_below	92.5%	percent of tracts in which the white children's mean rank is higher	share of tracts (each tract counted once) where white children reach a higher mean adult rank than Black children, county-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in tracts where the Atlas estimates both white and Black children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 91.9% to 93.0%	30,997 tracts	none (each tract counts once)	Opportunity Atlas	Weighting tracts by 2010 population gives a similar share.
pct_inter	16%	percent of the variance of county-by-race life expectancy	share of the total variance attributed to the race-by-place interaction (the spread of the gap across counties), weighted by county population, bootstrap interval over counties	county-by-race life expectancy (a white and a Black estimate for each county) in the counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 13% to 19%	1,265 counties	county total population	County Health Rankings
pct_inter_unw	17%	percent of the variance of county-by-race life expectancy	share of the total variance attributed to the race-by-place interaction (the spread of the gap across counties), each county counted once, bootstrap interval over counties	county-by-race life expectancy (a white and a Black estimate for each county) in the counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 15% to 19%	1,265 counties	none (each county counts once)	County Health Rankings
pct_place	53%	percent of the variance of county-by-race life expectancy	share of the total variance attributed to place (the spread of county averages), weighted by county population, bootstrap interval over counties	county-by-race life expectancy (a white and a Black estimate for each county) in the counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 48% to 58%	1,265 counties	county total population	County Health Rankings
pct_place_unw	64%	percent of the variance of county-by-race life expectancy	share of the total variance attributed to place (the spread of county averages), each county counted once, bootstrap interval over counties	county-by-race life expectancy (a white and a Black estimate for each county) in the counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 62% to 66%	1,265 counties	none (each county counts once)	County Health Rankings
pct_race	31%	percent of the variance of county-by-race life expectancy	share of the total variance attributed to race (the average white-Black gap), weighted by county population, bootstrap interval over counties	county-by-race life expectancy (a white and a Black estimate for each county) in the counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 26% to 37%	1,265 counties	county total population	County Health Rankings
pct_race_unw	19%	percent of the variance of county-by-race life expectancy	share of the total variance attributed to race (the average white-Black gap), each county counted once, bootstrap interval over counties	county-by-race life expectancy (a white and a Black estimate for each county) in the counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 17% to 22%	1,265 counties	none (each county counts once)	County Health Rankings
pct_white_higher	89%	percent of counties	share of counties where non-Hispanic white life expectancy exceeds non-Hispanic Black life expectancy	counties with both a non-Hispanic white and a non-Hispanic Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)		1,265 counties	none (each county counts once)	County Health Rankings
pm_ratio	1.5	ratio of the non-Hispanic Black to the non-Hispanic white premature age-adjusted mortality rate (deaths under age 75 per 100,000)	ratio of two county-population-weighted means of the age-adjusted premature death rate per 100,000, bootstrap interval over counties	counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings that also report both premature death rates	deaths before age 75 in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)	95% CI 1.5 to 1.6	1,242 counties	county total population	County Health Rankings
pop_lad	144.8 million	people	sum of 2010 census tract population	residents of the tracts in the same-tract comparison	2010 census			none (full count)	Opportunity Atlas
pop_lad_share	46.9%	percent of the 2010 U.S. population	population of the same-tract comparison tracts as a share of the U.S. population	residents of the United States	2010 census			none (full count)	Opportunity Atlas
prem	13.6	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, 75th-percentile parents minus 25th-percentile parents	mean over tracts of the 75th minus the 25th percentile family rank (the born-rich premium), population-weighted mean over tracts (2010 tract population as the weight), county-bootstrap interval	children raised in families at the 25th and the 75th percentile of the national income distribution, in tracts where the Atlas estimates both	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 13.2 to 13.9	71,924 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
prem_bot_val	8.0	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, 75th-percentile parents minus 25th-percentile parents	population-weighted mean of the tract premium within the county	the county with the smallest premium, among counties with at least 100 tracts	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		328 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
prem_luzerne	16.9	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, 75th-percentile parents minus 25th-percentile parents	population-weighted mean of the tract premium within the county	Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, among counties with at least 100 tracts	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		103 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
prem_p5	5.8	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, 75th-percentile parents minus 25th-percentile parents	population-weighted 5th percentile of the tract premium	children raised in families at the 25th and the 75th percentile of the national income distribution, in tracts where the Atlas estimates both	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		71,924 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	Tract estimates carry sampling and privacy noise, which widens this spread.
prem_p95	21.3	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, 75th-percentile parents minus 25th-percentile parents	population-weighted 95th percentile of the tract premium	children raised in families at the 25th and the 75th percentile of the national income distribution, in tracts where the Atlas estimates both	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		71,924 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	Tract estimates carry sampling and privacy noise, which widens this spread.
prem_sf	8.9	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, 75th-percentile parents minus 25th-percentile parents	population-weighted mean of the tract premium within the county	San Francisco County, California, among counties with at least 100 tracts	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		193 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
prem_top_val	17.3	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood, 75th-percentile parents minus 25th-percentile parents	population-weighted mean of the tract premium within the county	the county with the largest premium, among counties with at least 100 tracts	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		222 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
premature_age	75	years of age	age limit in the definition of premature death (deaths before this age)	deaths counted as premature in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)			none (definition)	County Health Rankings
rev_median_pop	59,039	people	median of county total population	residents of the counties where the Black estimate is the higher	county population in County Health Rankings 2024		140 counties	none (median over counties)	County Health Rankings
seg_beta_fe	0.06	years of life-expectancy gap per point of the dissimilarity index	slope of the gap on the index in a county-population-weighted regression with state fixed effects, errors clustered on state	counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings that also report the Black-white residential segregation index	index from ACS 2018 to 2022; deaths in 2019 to 2021	95% CI 0.00 to 0.12	1,260 counties	county total population	County Health Rankings
seg_n	1,260	counties	count of counties in the segregation comparison	counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings that also report the Black-white residential segregation index	index from ACS 2018 to 2022; deaths in 2019 to 2021			none (full count)	County Health Rankings
seg_r	+0.30	correlation coefficient	population-weighted correlation of the white minus Black life-expectancy gap with the index of dissimilarity, bootstrap interval over counties	counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings that also report the Black-white residential segregation index	index from ACS 2018 to 2022; deaths in 2019 to 2021	95% CI 0.14 to 0.45	1,260 counties	county total population	County Health Rankings
sf_p25	50.3	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	population-weighted mean adult household income rank over the county's tracts	children raised at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution in San Francisco County	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		193 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
sf_p75	59.2	percentile points of national household income rank in adulthood	population-weighted mean adult household income rank over the county's tracts	children raised at the 75th percentile of the national income distribution in San Francisco County	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015		193 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
slope_bw	0.60	percentile points of Black children's rank per point of white children's rank	slope of the county mean Black rank on the county mean white rank, weighted by 2010 population summed to the county, state-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in counties with at least 20 tracts that have both estimates	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 0.49 to 0.71	336 counties	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas
slope_bw_tract	0.33	percentile points of Black children's rank per point of white children's rank	slope of the tract's Black rank on its white rank, population-weighted, county-bootstrap interval	children raised in low-income families (parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution) in tracts where the Atlas estimates both white and Black children	children born 1978 to 1983, household income measured in 2014 to 2015	95% CI 0.30 to 0.36	30,997 tracts	2010 census tract population	Opportunity Atlas	Sampling noise in the white rank pulls this slope toward zero by an amount the staged data cannot size; the county slope averages that noise away.
support_r	−0.25	correlation coefficient	population-weighted correlation of the county support ratio with the county mobility rank, bootstrap interval over counties	counties with a Social Capital Atlas measure and an Opportunity Atlas mobility rank	friendships among Facebook users in 2022; mobility for children born 1978 to 1983	95% CI −0.33 to −0.17	2,983 counties	2018 county population (Social Capital Atlas)	Social Capital Atlas
vol_r	+0.19	correlation coefficient	population-weighted correlation of the county volunteering rate with the county mobility rank, bootstrap interval over counties	counties with a Social Capital Atlas measure and an Opportunity Atlas mobility rank	friendships among Facebook users in 2022; mobility for children born 1978 to 1983	95% CI 0.12 to 0.25	2,983 counties	2018 county population (Social Capital Atlas)	Social Capital Atlas
worst_white	74.4	years of life expectancy at birth	10th percentile of county white life expectancy, weighted by county population	white residents of the counties with both a white and a Black life expectancy in County Health Rankings	deaths in 2019 to 2021 (County Health Rankings 2024 release)		1,265 counties	county total population	County Health Rankings
zip_r	+0.82	correlation coefficient	population-weighted correlation of ZIP economic connectedness with the ZIP's percentile rank of median household income, bootstrap interval over counties	ZIP code areas (ZCTAs) with an economic connectedness value and a median household income	friendships among Facebook users in 2022; income ACS 2019 to 2023	95% CI 0.81 to 0.83	18,896 ZIP code areas	2018 ZIP population (Social Capital Atlas)	Social Capital Atlas

Definitions

Income rank (kfr): The position that adult children reach in the national distribution of household income, from the lowest rank to the highest, averaged over children who grew up in a place with parents at a stated income level. The Opportunity Atlas labels this measure kfr.
Census tract: A small area drawn by the Census Bureau to stand in for a neighborhood. Boundaries are redrawn after each decennial census.
Economic connectedness: A measure of friendship across class lines, based on the share of high-status friends among people below the median in socioeconomic status. It is scaled so that friendships mixing in proportion to the population give the reference value.
ZCTA: ZIP Code Tabulation Area, the Census Bureau's approximation of a ZIP code as a set of census blocks. It lets census data be reported by ZIP code, though some ZIP codes have no matching ZCTA.
Population-weighted: Averaged so that each place counts in proportion to its number of residents, which lets a large county move the result more than a small one. An unweighted average counts every place equally.
Fixed effects: A regression adjustment that gives each group, such as each county, its own baseline. The estimate then rests on differences within groups.
Ecological inference: Drawing conclusions about individuals from data about places or groups. A pattern across counties need not hold for the people inside them.

Methods

The tract comparisons use Opportunity Atlas estimates on native 2010 tracts for children born in 1978 to 1983 and observed in 2014 to 2015, and a tract enters a comparison only when both estimates exist. Atlas privacy noise is not clipped, and tracts are weighted by their 2010 census population because the Atlas has no child counts. The county comparisons of life expectancy by race use County Health Rankings estimates for deaths in 2019 to 2021, for counties with both a non-Hispanic white and a non-Hispanic Black value, so the mobility outcomes and the life-expectancy outcomes refer to different periods. The connectedness regression drops Connecticut.

Which tracts and children the Atlas comparisons cover

Tract comparisons use the Opportunity Atlas on native 2010 tracts. Ranks are percentiles of the national household income distribution for children born in 1978 to 1983, observed in 2014 to 2015; race-specific ranks are staged for parents at the 25th percentile with genders pooled, and the 75th-percentile rank only with races pooled. Atlas privacy noise is not clipped.

A tract enters a comparison when both estimates exist and its 2010 population is positive.

Figures explained here: Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4

How life expectancy by race and the variance split are defined

Life expectancy by race is the County Health Rankings 2024 estimate, computed from NCHS death counts for deaths in 2019 to 2021, for counties with both a non-Hispanic white and a non-Hispanic Black value; the white-Black gap within counties, weighted and unweighted, comes from the book's shared routine.

The variance split treats the white and Black life expectancy of each county as two cells, gives both the same weight (county population, or one), and divides the weighted variance of the cells into the variance of county averages (place), the squared difference between the group means (race) and the remainder, which equals the weighted variance of the county gaps divided by four (interaction); the shares sum to 100.

Figures explained here: Figure 6 and Figure 7

How tracts and counties are weighted and joined

Each tract is weighted by its 2010 census population, read from the USDA Food Access Research Atlas file, which carries the 2010 census count of every 2010 tract (the Atlas has no child counts); counting each tract once gives similar results, and the share of tracts in which white children rank higher counts each tract once.

County mobility ranks, the Social Capital Atlas measures and ACS controls are joined on county codes; correlations are weighted by the Atlas's 2018 population, and the regression is a weighted fit of standardized variables with errors clustered on state (Connecticut drops out because the ACS tract file uses planning-region codes).

Figures explained here: Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5

How the gap across the white rank is estimated

The contrast of the white-Black gap across the white rank is estimated at county grain, on counties with at least 20 tracts that have both estimates, because sorting tracts on a noisy rank builds the contrast in; the county slopes of the premium use counties with at least 10 and at least 100 tracts, with state-bootstrap intervals.

Figures explained here: Figure 2 and Figure 4

How uncertainty is measured

Intervals are 95% percentile intervals from 2,000 draws of whole counties with replacement (seed 12345), computed by the same routine for means, shares, slopes and correlations; state-level quantities use states as the resampling unit. Scatter plots show a random sample of tracts inside the plotted range drawn with the same seed; every estimate uses all tracts.

Intervals on the shares resample counties. Counties with a missing estimate are not drawn and are not treated as zero.

What these data cannot show

References

Chetty, Raj; Friedman, John N.; Hendren, Nathaniel; Jones, Maggie R.; Porter, Sonya R. (2018). The Opportunity Atlas: Mapping the Childhood Roots of Social Mobility. NBER Working Paper 25147. doi:10.3386/w25147
Chetty, Raj; Hendren, Nathaniel; Jones, Maggie R.; Porter, Sonya R. (2020). Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: An Intergenerational Perspective. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 135(2): 711-783. doi:10.1093/qje/qjz042
Chetty, Raj; Jackson, Matthew O.; Kuchler, Theresa; Stroebel, Johannes; et al. (2022). Social capital I: measurement and associations with economic mobility. Nature 608: 108-121. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04996-4
University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute (2024). County Health Rankings & Roadmaps Technical Documentation, Version 2. University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute (updated March 18, 2024). www.countyhealthrankings.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2024%20CHRR%20Technical%20Document_1.pdf
Chetty, Raj; Hendren, Nathaniel; Katz, Lawrence F. (2016). The Effects of Exposure to Better Neighborhoods on Children: New Evidence from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment. American Economic Review 106(4): 855-902. doi:10.1257/aer.20150572
Chetty, Raj; Hendren, Nathaniel (2018). The Impacts of Neighborhoods on Intergenerational Mobility I: Childhood Exposure Effects. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 133(3): 1107-1162. doi:10.1093/qje/qjy007
Chetty, Raj; Hendren, Nathaniel (2018). The Impacts of Neighborhoods on Intergenerational Mobility II: County-Level Estimates. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 133(3): 1163-1228. doi:10.1093/qje/qjy006

Provenance

Pipeline version: 0.1.0
Build script: book2/chapters/race-income-and-mobility/build.py (sha256 a8ec15d89c0374c9cc3e97a83cf5b548ed926ec782cbeac2d38b7cd537e1b4c4)
Built on: 2026-10-07
Site commit: c2b1ff3309cb4a10833f884da91ac0057a66ad0a

Inputs

File	Size (bytes)	SHA-256, first 1 MB	SHA-256, last 1 MB
book2/chapters/race-income-and-mobility/places.py	11,415	01c6e17503dcb1c97b10c655aafe77a7e9bd50e52de96a5bdc4ef5a0b8cb9879	01c6e17503dcb1c97b10c655aafe77a7e9bd50e52de96a5bdc4ef5a0b8cb9879
book2/chapters/race-income-and-mobility/racegap.py	8,577	1a4d09aad9a1b031c1e8eca451e5f7277d86261fc508ab91cd853f3a529c95b5	1a4d09aad9a1b031c1e8eca451e5f7277d86261fc508ab91cd853f3a529c95b5
book2/chapters/race-income-and-mobility/tracts.py	12,656	510ec8ede8a4374f1efd405be50d933f724f76e96864375865bc9bbae8a6765b	510ec8ede8a4374f1efd405be50d933f724f76e96864375865bc9bbae8a6765b
data/analytic/zcta_atlas.parquet	674,348,737	0abfad485b74b74eb956fdc57c88e504abe10d601a2e99a3f16467469826578c	0e37a4ce00d8569d49dccd0b2dfdc2c8435934f9c8a606bbca2ca1dad2c9effe
data/staged/food_access/food_access_tract2010_2019.parquet	37,967,838	c36929f1809e9ac84ac5f1cb62140bd980c315287833c6f281839df4c1619c89	05a17b940a79393b0c2ce5c9e9248496c319cba6896b63af3a2df34fe04f63aa
data/staged/health/chr_county_2024.parquet	8,776,933	619795f7ecfec8aff10694b649eaee5e421dbeffbe4be47af4161b51ceefa5cd	c69357f1bcf630407bb9716cb445618838999558c019aaaf77d4681b6bf45c56
data/staged/mobility/oa_module1_tract2010.parquet	14,946,600	32583830e03567b41ad3c245ca41aa67fb9cb55a8a46e8d9ae4c77a6cc2fcd83	6d67fac56edd8f07346375fb0b97e3c82621d57457d89c7fe93ec6f1b758bfaf
data/staged/mobility/oa_outcomes_county.parquet	721,343	fd7bc55294fbd3f7a646f27083500c1f12415775db7a3607878b522d277f8140	fd7bc55294fbd3f7a646f27083500c1f12415775db7a3607878b522d277f8140
data/staged/ses/acs5_tract2020_2019_2023.parquet	7,232,424	5fe6f730a35225f14d5d8abfc6b9bce58b52e545f309a7eac74f1dae74d7a31c	7b4a2475b3852d3f91804716a04566ef8ceadacec2be9fb85f5eb642078efac6
data/staged/social_capital/sc_atlas_county_2022.parquet	655,734	9ee5596513748a9b62c3e5fc559ad41b804696702c9f92848be04a05222f2f46	9ee5596513748a9b62c3e5fc559ad41b804696702c9f92848be04a05222f2f46
data/staged/social_capital/sc_atlas_zip_2022.parquet	3,110,340	7685825cc96df0d404153c288fc722577ad9ee08322eca981a2832f69369856a	b856fceb0423edeaefb67ea1812dc2d45d35591d792e3aba1bcc7e92c01af828

Outputs

File	SHA-256
facts.json	78f6e8841f063c454c4a54f624a06a916d204af05d3a711bcd457b0043f68ca0
figures/born_rich_premium.json	0f434894652c0e7c717f4c43a5316c4ff16915bdf9588716cf72e704c8815111
figures/connectedness_horse_race.json	e19bb1d0134a2fc27148981433520f4d91e96921c71bd8f6ee0722eabc03697b
figures/group_gaps_same_tract.json	9d3bda02a4d76da0881bad5df30660ed4404da03e405eca3b3c752cefc392658
figures/le_black_white_counties.json	075b15deec50eddbbd75b6ea1fe4f21556f35da33abbc1585d62ce87b5221250
figures/le_variance_race_place.json	5a78909d3acf11835314ac9ca7605ac8d30b15e19bf63867ac0be3d2f7934af0
figures/mobility_map.json	3fad1155815b20a87c60b548fb4eef49f59d400b0b630bf87f443957acedd741
figures/same_tract_black_white.json	4ab08361576c2d94c21c91580e3e23d40f3fcd651fe1ccba6d9e154c7283c3df
meta.json	9963563b1cb8d9902e964ccf8190715b67348f8b988f2576656541ec774f06cf
public/data/race-income-and-mobility/born_rich_premium.json	62760e10bc85a68a5a27bd8c8ef8769e92d1bc68ded23a9cc4314c63b05d458a
public/data/race-income-and-mobility/mobility_map.json	a040e912e07617cff3bc997fee34ca7310dd83ab7d61ddfb827ad054ce433de7
public/data/race-income-and-mobility/same_tract_black_white.json	80edb0b40b7c97260c29607c2a4c916ec42826021b7c455b6f474858f2f4e423
refs.json	52c81dac44ace635a783210962a409d0d152a5168429e5b8da06018c4ce74a7d

Machine formats

Report (Markdown): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/race-income-and-mobility/report.md
Every estimate (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/facts.json
Table 1, figure "mobility_map" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/mobility_map.json
Table 2, figure "same_tract_black_white" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/same_tract_black_white.json
Table 3, figure "group_gaps_same_tract" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/group_gaps_same_tract.json
Table 4, figure "born_rich_premium" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/born_rich_premium.json
Table 5, figure "connectedness_horse_race" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/connectedness_horse_race.json
Table 6, figure "le_black_white_counties" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/le_black_white_counties.json
Table 7, figure "le_variance_race_place" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/race-income-and-mobility/figures/le_variance_race_place.json
Payload of "mobility_map" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/race-income-and-mobility/mobility_map.json
Payload of "same_tract_black_white" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/race-income-and-mobility/same_tract_black_white.json
Payload of "born_rich_premium" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/race-income-and-mobility/born_rich_premium.json
Index of every report: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/llms.txt; all reports in one file: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/llms-full.txt