Gender gaps in reading and math

Girls scored higher than boys in reading in 99.9%99.9% percent of districts where the reading gap is below zeroEstimandshare of districts (each counted once) where girls' mean reading score exceeds boys', bootstrap interval over statesInterval95% CI 99.8% to 100.0%n12,327 districtsWeightsnone (each district counts once)Populationschool districts with a reading gap estimatePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019SourceStanford Education Data Archive of the 12,32712,327 districtsEstimandcount of districtsWeightsnone (full count)Populationschool districts with a male-female reading gap estimatePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019SourceStanford Education Data Archive American school districts with a reading estimate, pooling third through eighth grade over the 2009 to 2019 school years. Each gap in this essay is the mean score of a district's boys minus the mean score of its girls, so a negative gap means girls scored higher. Scores are in grade levels, a scale on which one unit is the learning of an average school year. Girls and boys attend school in the same district, so each gap is measured inside one set of schools and neighborhoods, not by setting a rich district beside a poor one.

Girls lead in reading, and math gaps take both signs

Counting each district once, the mean reading gap across districts was −0.76 (95% CI −0.82 to −0.70)−0.76 reading gap in grade levels, male minus female (negative means girls scored higher)Estimandmean over districts of the male minus female reading gap, bootstrap interval over statesInterval95% CI −0.82 to −0.70n12,327 districtsWeightsnone (each district counts once)Populationschool districts with a reading gap estimatePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019SourceStanford Education Data Archive grade levels. The math gap has no common sign. Its mean across districts is −0.031 (95% CI −0.060 to −0.004)−0.031 math gap in grade levels, male minus female (negative means girls scored higher)Estimandmean over districts of the male minus female math gap, bootstrap interval over statesInterval95% CI −0.060 to −0.004n12,207 districtsWeightsnone (each district counts once)Populationschool districts with a math gap estimatePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019SourceStanford Education Data Archive grade levels, its distribution is centered close to zero, and boys lead in math in 43.8% (95% CI 38.1% to 49.4%)43.8% percent of districts where the math gap is above zeroEstimandshare of districts (each counted once) where boys' mean math score exceeds girls', bootstrap interval over statesInterval95% CI 38.1% to 49.4%n12,207 districtsWeightsnone (each district counts once)Populationschool districts with a math gap estimatePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019SourceStanford Education Data Archive of the districts with a math estimate.

The reading gap has one sign in almost every district, so its sign does not depend on the district. The sign of the math gap does, and later sections show that it changes with district income.

Figure 1

Girls scored higher than boys in reading in 99.9% of districts, while math gaps fall on both sides of zero

Distribution across school districts of the male minus female mean test score gap in grade levels, reading and math, third through eighth grade pooled over 2009 to 2019

Show data

Data for Girls scored higher than boys in reading in 99.9% of districts, while math gaps fall on both sides of zero

density	gap	subject
0	−1.90	Reading
1	−1.85	Reading
1	−1.80	Reading
3	−1.75	Reading
4	−1.70	Reading
9	−1.65	Reading
16	−1.60	Reading
24	−1.55	Reading
32	−1.50	Reading
49	−1.45	Reading
89	−1.40	Reading
117	−1.35	Reading
153	−1.30	Reading
226	−1.25	Reading
329	−1.20	Reading
446	−1.15	Reading
593	−1.10	Reading
778	−1.05	Reading
1035	−1	Reading
1247	−0.950	Reading
1375	−0.900	Reading
1510	−0.850	Reading
1588	−0.800	Reading
1578	−0.750	Reading
1525	−0.700	Reading
1406	−0.650	Reading
1290	−0.600	Reading
1139	−0.550	Reading
928	−0.500	Reading
727	−0.450	Reading
567	−0.400	Reading
421	−0.350	Reading
297	−0.300	Reading
195	−0.250	Reading
129	−0.200	Reading
71	−0.150	Reading
44	−0.100	Reading
29	−0.050	Reading
10	0	Reading
6	0.050	Reading
5	0.100	Reading
2	0.150	Reading
2	0.200	Reading
1	0.250	Reading
0	0.300	Reading
0	0.350	Reading
0	0.400	Reading
0	0.450	Reading
0	0.500	Reading
0	0.550	Reading
0	0.600	Reading
0	0.650	Reading
0	0.700	Reading
0	0.750	Reading
0	0.800	Reading
0	0.850	Reading
0	0.900	Reading
0	0.950	Reading
0	1	Reading
0	1.05	Reading
0	1.10	Reading
0	1.15	Reading
1	1.20	Reading
1	1.25	Reading
0	1.30	Reading
0	−1.90	Math
0	−1.85	Math
0	−1.80	Math
0	−1.75	Math
0	−1.70	Math
0	−1.65	Math
0	−1.60	Math
0	−1.55	Math
0	−1.50	Math
0	−1.45	Math
0	−1.40	Math
0	−1.35	Math
0	−1.30	Math
0	−1.25	Math
1	−1.20	Math
0	−1.15	Math
0	−1.10	Math
0	−1.05	Math
0	−1	Math
0	−0.950	Math
0	−0.900	Math
1	−0.850	Math
7	−0.800	Math
13	−0.750	Math
15	−0.700	Math
24	−0.650	Math
55	−0.600	Math
94	−0.550	Math
119	−0.500	Math
185	−0.450	Math
313	−0.400	Math
507	−0.350	Math
748	−0.300	Math
1021	−0.250	Math
1354	−0.200	Math
1700	−0.150	Math
1931	−0.100	Math
2095	−0.050	Math
2058	0	Math
1955	0.050	Math
1662	0.100	Math
1278	0.150	Math
1007	0.200	Math
708	0.250	Math
485	0.300	Math
274	0.350	Math
182	0.400	Math
100	0.450	Math
52	0.500	Math
21	0.550	Math
19	0.600	Math
6	0.650	Math
4	0.700	Math
1	0.750	Math
1	0.800	Math
0	0.850	Math
0	0.900	Math
0	0.950	Math
0	1	Math
1	1.05	Math
0	1.10	Math
0	1.15	Math
0	1.20	Math
0	1.25	Math
0	1.30	Math

How we know

The gaps come from the Stanford Education Data Archive (SEDA), which builds district estimates from state accountability tests in reading and math. SEDA places the tests of every state on one scale through the National Assessment of Educational Progress. For each district it reports the mean score of girls, the mean score of boys and the difference between them. Intervals come from a bootstrapBootstrap intervalA range for an estimate found by recomputing it on many random resamples of the data and reading the range from the results. It shows how much the estimate would vary from sample to sample. that resamples whole states, since the districts of one state share tests and policies. A district's gap is an estimate with its own error, so a negative estimate does not always mean that girls in that district scored higher. The median standard error of a district's math gap is 0.060.06 standard error of a district's math gap, grade levelsEstimandmedian over districts of the standard error SEDA reports for the male minus female math gapn12,140 districtsWeightsnone (each district counts once)Populationschool districts with a math gap estimate and a standard errorPeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019SourceStanford Education Data Archive grade levels, which exceeds the size of the mean math gap. The 95% interval of a district's math gap includes zero in 47.2% (95% CI 42.2% to 51.8%)47.2% percent of districts whose 95% interval for the math gap includes zeroEstimandshare of districts (each counted once) whose 95% interval, built from the estimate and its standard error, includes zero; bootstrap interval over statesInterval95% CI 42.2% to 51.8%n12,140 districtsWeightsnone (each district counts once)Populationschool districts with a math gap estimate and a standard errorPeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019SourceStanford Education Data Archive of the districts that report a standard error. SEDA's figures are empirical-Bayes estimates, which pull the noisiest districts toward the average and narrow the spread of district gaps. The report gives every estimate with its interval and sample size.

The math gap rises with district income

District income here is the mean of the median household incomes of a district's census tracts, weighted by households, from the American Community Survey for 2019 to 2023. It is measured after the test scores, on the district boundaries of the 2021 to 2022 school year. Ranking districts by income and splitting them into tenths of equal size, the math gap averages −0.20 (95% CI −0.26 to −0.15)−0.20 math gap in grade levels, male minus female (negative means girls scored higher)Estimandtest-weighted mean of the male minus female math gap within a tenth of districts (equal numbers of districts), bootstrap interval over statesInterval95% CI −0.26 to −0.15n1,213 districtsWeightsnumber of math and reading test scores in the districtPopulationschool districts in the lowest tenth of districts by district median household incomePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019; district income from the American Community Survey, 2019 to 2023SourceStanford Education Data Archive grade levels in the lowest tenth, where girls lead. In the highest tenth it averages +0.08 (95% CI 0.04 to 0.12)+0.08 math gap in grade levels, male minus female (negative means girls scored higher)Estimandtest-weighted mean of the male minus female math gap within a tenth of districts (equal numbers of districts), bootstrap interval over statesInterval95% CI 0.04 to 0.12n1,214 districtsWeightsnumber of math and reading test scores in the districtPopulationschool districts in the highest tenth of districts by district median household incomePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019; district income from the American Community Survey, 2019 to 2023SourceStanford Education Data Archive, where boys lead. These means weight each district by its number of test scores, and the two intervals do not overlap.

The reading gap stays below zero in every tenth. Its correlation with a district's income rank is −0.09 (95% CI −0.21 to 0.04)−0.09 correlation coefficientEstimandtest-weighted correlation of the district reading gap with the district's percentile rank of income, bootstrap interval over statesInterval95% CI −0.21 to 0.04n12,136 districtsWeightsnumber of math and reading test scores in the districtPopulationschool districts with both gaps and a district incomePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019; district income from the American Community Survey, 2019 to 2023SourceStanford Education Data Archive, and that interval includes zero.

Figure 2

The math gap rises from −0.20 grade levels in the lowest-income tenth of districts to +0.08 in the highest, while the reading gap stays below zero

Test-weighted mean male minus female gap in grade levels by tenth of district median household income, reading and math, third through eighth grade pooled over 2009 to 2019

Mean male minus female gap (grade levels)

Show data

Data for The math gap rises from −0.20 grade levels in the lowest-income tenth of districts to +0.08 in the highest, while the reading gap stays below zero

Subject	Income tenth	Median district income (dollars)	Mean gap (grade levels)	Lower limit of the 95% interval	Upper limit of the 95% interval	Districts
Reading	1	46,464	−0.79	−0.89	−0.71	1,213
Reading	2	54,714	−0.80	−0.88	−0.72	1,214
Reading	3	60,094	−0.78	−0.86	−0.70	1,213
Reading	4	64,792	−0.78	−0.85	−0.70	1,214
Reading	5	69,421	−0.74	−0.81	−0.68	1,214
Reading	6	74,142	−0.76	−0.84	−0.69	1,213
Reading	7	80,405	−0.77	−0.86	−0.69	1,214
Reading	8	88,948	−0.80	−0.85	−0.72	1,213
Reading	9	102,837	−0.81	−0.88	−0.73	1,214
Reading	10	136,556	−0.87	−0.97	−0.78	1,214
Math	1	46,464	−0.20	−0.26	−0.15	1,213
Math	2	54,714	−0.14	−0.19	−0.10	1,214
Math	3	60,094	−0.14	−0.20	−0.09	1,213
Math	4	64,792	−0.10	−0.15	−0.05	1,214
Math	5	69,421	−0.05	−0.09	−0.01	1,214
Math	6	74,142	−0.07	−0.11	−0.03	1,213
Math	7	80,405	−0.06	−0.11	−0.02	1,214
Math	8	88,948	−0.06	−0.10	0.00	1,213
Math	9	102,837	+0.01	−0.03	+0.06	1,214
Math	10	136,556	+0.08	+0.04	+0.12	1,214

Income differs across states, and so do tests and policies, so the national pattern could come from comparing states. A comparison within each state answers that. Of the 4545 statesEstimandcount of states given a slopeWeightsnone (full count)Populationstates with at least the minimum number of districts in the income samplePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019; district income from the American Community Survey, 2019 to 2023SourceStanford Education Data Archive states with enough districts in the sample to fit a slope of their own, the math gap rises with income rank in 4545 statesEstimandcount of states where the test-weighted slope of the math gap on income rank is positiveWeightsnone (full count)Populationstates with at least the minimum number of districts in the income samplePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019; district income from the American Community Survey, 2019 to 2023SourceStanford Education Data Archive. The 95% interval of that slope lies above zero in 3838 statesEstimandcount of states where the 95% interval (heteroskedasticity-robust) for that slope lies above zeroWeightsnone (full count)Populationstates with at least the minimum number of districts in the income samplePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019; district income from the American Community Survey, 2019 to 2023SourceStanford Education Data Archive of them. Districts of both signs appear at every income, so the balance between the two signs shifts with income and the districts do not fall into two kinds.

The reading gap keeps its sign but varies by state

The test-weighted mean reading gap is below zero in every state with both gaps and a district income, and its size differs by state. It runs from −1.28−1.28 reading gap in grade levels, male minus female (negative means girls scored higher)Estimandtest-weighted mean of district gaps in the state (the interval treats districts as independent)Interval95% CI −1.32 to −1.25n234 districtsWeightsnumber of math and reading test scores in the districtPopulationschool districts in the state with the largest reading lead for girlsPeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019; district income from the American Community Survey, 2019 to 2023SourceStanford Education Data Archive grade levels in Arkansas to −0.46−0.46 reading gap in grade levels, male minus female (negative means girls scored higher)Estimandtest-weighted mean of district gaps in the state (the interval treats districts as independent)Interval95% CI −0.50 to −0.42n326 districtsWeightsnumber of math and reading test scores in the districtPopulationschool districts in the state with the smallest reading lead for girlsPeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019; district income from the American Community Survey, 2019 to 2023SourceStanford Education Data Archive in Iowa. Differences between states account for 70% (95% CI 68% to 72%)70% percent of the variance of district reading gaps that lies between statesEstimandR squared of district reading gaps on state, weighted by test scores; interval from resampling districtsInterval95% CI 68% to 72%n12,136 districtsWeightsnumber of math and reading test scores in the districtPopulationschool districts with a reading gap, a math gap and a district incomePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019; district income from the American Community Survey, 2019 to 2023SourceStanford Education Data ArchiveNoteResampling districts adds a small upward bias to the share, so the interval sits slightly high. of the test-weighted variance of district reading gaps, a measure of their spread, and 36% (95% CI 34% to 40%)36% percent of the variance of district math gaps that lies between statesEstimandR squared of district math gaps on state, weighted by test scores; interval from resampling districtsInterval95% CI 34% to 40%n12,136 districtsWeightsnumber of math and reading test scores in the districtPopulationschool districts with a reading gap, a math gap and a district incomePeriodtest scores of third through eighth graders, pooled over 2009 to 2019; district income from the American Community Survey, 2019 to 2023SourceStanford Education Data ArchiveNoteResampling districts adds a small upward bias to the share, so the interval sits slightly high. of the test-weighted variance of district math gaps. Reading is the larger share when each district counts once as well. SEDA's estimates pull noisy districts toward an average, and if that average is a state or national mean, the shares between states could change.

Figure 3

The reading gap is below zero in all 48 states, while the math gap is above zero in 20 of them

Test-weighted mean male minus female gap in grade levels by state, reading and math, districts with both gaps and an income, third through eighth grade pooled over 2009 to 2019

• Math
• Reading

Show data

Data for The reading gap is below zero in all 48 states, while the math gap is above zero in 20 of them

conf_high	conf_low	estimate	n	state	subject
0.299	0.228	0.263	326	Iowa	Math
−0.424	−0.499	−0.461	326	Iowa	Reading
0.219	0.095	0.157	41	Utah	Math
−0.722	−0.799	−0.760	41	Utah	Reading
0.164	0.055	0.109	110	Idaho	Math
−0.618	−0.727	−0.672	110	Idaho	Reading
0.144	0.068	0.106	323	Minnesota	Math
−0.573	−0.641	−0.607	323	Minnesota	Reading
0.135	0.073	0.104	509	Oklahoma	Math
−0.495	−0.563	−0.529	509	Oklahoma	Reading
0.132	0.070	0.101	513	Michigan	Math
−0.692	−0.742	−0.717	513	Michigan	Reading
0.134	0.060	0.097	172	Oregon	Math
−0.660	−0.737	−0.698	172	Oregon	Reading
0.151	0.020	0.085	150	North Dakota	Math
−0.685	−0.834	−0.760	150	North Dakota	Reading
0.156	0.011	0.084	240	Nebraska	Math
−0.438	−0.572	−0.505	240	Nebraska	Reading
0.108	0.054	0.081	288	Indiana	Math
−0.901	−0.947	−0.924	288	Indiana	Reading
0.127	0.028	0.077	284	Kansas	Math
−0.479	−0.566	−0.523	284	Kansas	Reading
0.130	0.006	0.068	48	Wyoming	Math
−0.531	−0.651	−0.591	48	Wyoming	Reading
0.100	0.023	0.061	410	Wisconsin	Math
−0.676	−0.749	−0.712	410	Wisconsin	Reading
0.089	−0.017	0.036	210	Montana	Math
−0.747	−0.866	−0.806	210	Montana	Reading
0.064	−0.009	0.027	141	New Hampshire	Math
−0.937	−1.01	−0.973	141	New Hampshire	Reading
0.055	−0.008	0.024	174	Maine	Math
−0.968	−1.05	−1.01	174	Maine	Reading
0.095	−0.063	0.016	147	South Dakota	Math
−0.621	−0.774	−0.698	147	South Dakota	Reading
0.057	−0.028	0.014	158	Connecticut	Math
−0.595	−0.654	−0.625	158	Connecticut	Reading
0.067	−0.048	0.009	16	Delaware	Math
−0.705	−0.872	−0.788	16	Delaware	Reading
0.069	−0.059	0.005	166	Colorado	Math
−0.899	−0.992	−0.945	166	Colorado	Reading
0.020	−0.047	−0.014	67	Florida	Math
−0.558	−0.607	−0.583	67	Florida	Reading
0.004	−0.041	−0.019	607	Ohio	Math
−0.696	−0.734	−0.715	607	Ohio	Reading
−0.018	−0.055	−0.037	1,004	Texas	Math
−0.556	−0.590	−0.573	1,004	Texas	Reading
0.006	−0.089	−0.041	499	Pennsylvania	Math
−0.897	−0.961	−0.929	499	Pennsylvania	Reading
0.059	−0.144	−0.043	16	Nevada	Math
−0.776	−1.06	−0.920	16	Nevada	Reading
−0.015	−0.077	−0.046	492	New Jersey	Math
−0.971	−1.01	−0.992	492	New Jersey	Reading
−0.003	−0.089	−0.046	51	Vermont	Math
−1.02	−1.13	−1.07	51	Vermont	Reading
0.056	−0.150	−0.047	652	New York	Math
−0.699	−0.899	−0.799	652	New York	Reading
−0.021	−0.075	−0.048	276	Washington	Math
−0.916	−0.971	−0.943	276	Washington	Reading
−0.016	−0.084	−0.050	512	Missouri	Math
−0.776	−0.836	−0.806	512	Missouri	Reading
−0.025	−0.096	−0.060	826	California	Math
−0.810	−0.858	−0.834	826	California	Reading
0.014	−0.193	−0.090	47	Alaska	Math
−0.739	−0.964	−0.851	47	Alaska	Reading
−0.056	−0.150	−0.103	55	West Virginia	Math
−1.16	−1.26	−1.21	55	West Virginia	Reading
−0.046	−0.179	−0.113	35	Rhode Island	Math
−1.08	−1.24	−1.16	35	Rhode Island	Reading
−0.081	−0.151	−0.116	268	Massachusetts	Math
−1.12	−1.17	−1.14	268	Massachusetts	Reading
−0.074	−0.167	−0.120	182	Arizona	Math
−0.802	−0.867	−0.834	182	Arizona	Reading
−0.091	−0.165	−0.128	115	North Carolina	Math
−0.480	−0.542	−0.511	115	North Carolina	Reading
−0.062	−0.197	−0.129	754	Illinois	Math
−0.901	−0.994	−0.948	754	Illinois	Reading
−0.125	−0.215	−0.170	180	Georgia	Math
−0.868	−0.941	−0.904	180	Georgia	Reading
−0.131	−0.231	−0.181	140	Tennessee	Math
−0.806	−0.879	−0.843	140	Tennessee	Reading
−0.141	−0.238	−0.189	172	Kentucky	Math
−0.737	−0.853	−0.795	172	Kentucky	Reading
−0.127	−0.265	−0.196	83	New Mexico	Math
−0.957	−1.13	−1.04	83	New Mexico	Reading
−0.156	−0.247	−0.202	78	South Carolina	Math
−0.805	−0.878	−0.841	78	South Carolina	Reading
−0.173	−0.258	−0.215	69	Louisiana	Math
−0.986	−1.05	−1.02	69	Louisiana	Reading
−0.198	−0.287	−0.243	234	Arkansas	Math
−1.25	−1.32	−1.28	234	Arkansas	Reading
−0.153	−0.350	−0.252	24	Maryland	Math
−1.11	−1.21	−1.16	24	Maryland	Reading
−0.244	−0.351	−0.298	137	Alabama	Math
−0.764	−0.854	−0.809	137	Alabama	Reading
−0.301	−0.376	−0.339	135	Mississippi	Math
−0.819	−0.884	−0.852	135	Mississippi	Reading

The data cannot say why the size differs. States give different tests, SEDA puts them on one scale, and a difference between states in a gap can come from schools, from students or from what a test asks.

What the two patterns describe

The sign of the reading gap and the slope of the math gap are descriptions of districts. The math gap rises with district income across states and within them. The reading gap favors girls in every income tenth and in every state, by amounts that differ between states. A district's income goes together with its schools, families, teachers and peers, and a comparison of girls and boys inside one district does not separate those from one another. Nothing here tests why the math gap moves with income. Reardon and colleagues used SEDA data for the school years ending in 2009 through 2016. They found that math gaps favored boys more in districts of higher socioeconomic status and in districts with larger gender disparities in adult income, education and occupation. For reading they did not find strong associations with those measures.[1] The gaps between income groups and between racial groups are the subject of Chapter 3.1, Test scores, class and race.

What this cannot tell you

A district's income is not a family's income. The data do not say that a girl or a boy from a poorer family scores differently from one in a richer family in the same district (ecological inferenceEcological inferenceDrawing conclusions about individuals from data about places or groups. A pattern across counties need not hold for the people inside them.). A gap pooled over third through eighth grade cannot show when in school it opens. A gap on state tests can reflect what a test asks as well as how girls and boys learned. SEDA covers public school students tested in 2009 to 2019, reports two groups, male and female, and has no math estimates for Virginia. Whether gaps in school scores carry into adult outcomes is the subject of Chapter 4.4, Boys and mobility (planned).

---

Go deeper

• The report: every estimate with its interval and sample size.
• Tables: every figure of the report as a table.

Reading paths that include this chapter:

• Outcomes that do not follow the gradient

Data sources

• Stanford Education Data ArchiveMale-female test score gaps and all-student scores in reading and math for school districts and counties, third through eighth grade pooled over 2009 to 2019 (version 6.0)Years: 2009-2019 (version 6.0) · Weights: none in the estimates (empirical-Bayes); districts weighted by their number of test scores or counted once, as each figure says · License: CC BY 4.0 (Stanford CEPA); cite SEDA
• American Community SurveyTract median household income and households, 2019 to 2023, apportioned to school districts with the NCES tract to school district crosswalk (2021 to 2022 school year)Years: 2019-2023 (5-year) · Weights: households, with each tract split across districts by land area · License: Public domain (U.S. Census Bureau)

All data sources

References

1. Reardon, Sean F.; Fahle, Erin M.; Kalogrides, Demetra; Podolsky, Anne; Zárate, Rosalía C. (2019). Gender Achievement Gaps in U.S. School Districts. American Educational Research Journal 56(6): 2474-2508. doi:10.3102/0002831219843824

How to cite

@misc{singh2026gendergapsinreadingandmath,
  author = {Singh, Vishal},
  title = {Gender gaps in reading and math},
  year = {2026},
  url = {https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/gender-gaps-in-reading-and-math},
  note = {In ZIP Code Destiny. Published 9 October 2026.}
}