Chapter 5.3 · The application and the answer · Report

Mortgage denials

Lenders denied 13.8% of the home-purchase applications they decided in 2024 in the most deprived tenth of census tracts and 7.8% in the least deprived tenth.

Author: Vishal Singh
Affiliation: NYU Stern
Published: 9 October 2026

Every estimate of the chapter with its interval and every figure as a table, generated from the chapter's data files. Table n of this report is figure n of the chapter. The same report as Markdown: report.md.

Identification

Title

Mortgage denials

Label

The application and the answer

Chapter

5.3 (Part V, Home, work and money; An American life)

Question

How do mortgage denial rates differ by tract deprivation, applicant race and the historical redlining grade?

Dek

Lenders denied 13.8% of the home-purchase applications they decided in 2024 in the most deprived tenth of census tracts and 7.8% in the least deprived tenth.

Grain

neighborhoods

Status

published

Published

9 October 2026

Updated

not revised

Data sources

HMDA mortgage lending. Home Mortgage Disclosure Act Loan/Application Register, 2024, first-lien site-built one-to-four-unit principal-residence applications aggregated to 2020 tracts by loan purpose and applicant group; cells under 10 applications withheld; years: 2024; weights: none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)
Area Deprivation Index. Area Deprivation Index 2023, national rank by tract; years: 2023 release (version 4.0.1; built on ACS 2019-2023); weights: none (tenths hold near-equal numbers of tracts)
Mapping Inequality (HOLC maps). Mapping Inequality HOLC residential security maps, 1935 to 1940, graded polygons overlaid on 2020 tracts; years: 1930s-1940s maps (2023 digitization); weights: decided applications
Published estimates from cited studies. One comparison quoted from the abstract of Hanson, Hawley, Martin and Liu (2016); years: as reported in each study; weights: as reported in the paper

Canonical URL

https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/mortgage-denials

Markdown

https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/mortgage-denials/report.md

BibTeX

@misc{singh2026mortgagedenials,
  author = {Singh, Vishal},
  title = {Mortgage denials},
  year = {2026},
  url = {https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/mortgage-denials},
  note = {In ZIP Code Destiny. Published 9 October 2026.}
}

Principal estimates

The facts the dek and the opening prose cite, in order of appearance. Every fact is in the table of all estimates below.

Estimand	Population	Period	Value	Interval	n	Weights	Source	Fact id
denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in the most deprived tenth of tracts by Area Deprivation Index national rank (tenths hold equal numbers of tracts)	applications decided in 2024	13.8%	95% CI 13.3% to 14.3%	7,591 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending	rate_d10
denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in the least deprived tenth of tracts by Area Deprivation Index national rank (tenths hold equal numbers of tracts)	applications decided in 2024	7.8%	95% CI 7.2% to 8.4%	7,584 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending	rate_d1
count of tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	tracts of the 50 states and DC	2024	5,657			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending	n_shared_black
tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published, divided by tracts with a published all-applicant cell	home-purchase applications that a covered lender originated or denied in 2024, first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, in tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published cell	applications decided in 2024	7.4%		76,072 tracts	none (each tract counts once)	HMDA mortgage lending	share_shared_black
denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	16.2%	95% CI 15.7% to 16.8%	5,657 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending	same_black
denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic white applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	6.2%	95% CI 6.0% to 6.5%	5,657 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending	same_white_vs_black

Findings

Lenders denied 13.8% (95% CI 13.3% to 14.3%) of the home-purchase applications that they decided in 2024 in the most deprived tenth of census tracts and 7.8% (95% CI 7.2% to 8.4%) in the least deprived tenth. In the 5,657 tracts that have published rates for both groups, which are 7.4% of all tracts, the denial rate was 16.2% (95% CI 15.7% to 16.8%) for non-Hispanic Black applicants and 6.2% (95% CI 6.0% to 6.5%) for non-Hispanic white applicants.

The data are tract totals from the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act, which requires lenders above size thresholds to report every application and what became of it. A denial rate is a share of applications that reached a decision. It leaves out people who never applied, applications that were withdrawn, and everything a lender weighs about the applicant: credit history, debts, savings and the size of the loan against the value of the home. The chapter describes where and for whom applications ended in a denial. It does not measure whether a lender weighed an applicant's race in a decision, and the gaps below are not estimates of discrimination.

The chapter cuts the data three ways: tracts ranked by deprivation, applicant groups within tracts, and the grades that the Home Owners' Loan Corporation gave neighborhoods in the 1930s. Chapter 5.2, Home value, income and redlining compares those grades with life expectancy and home values, and Chapter 5.1, Work, wages and access to jobs covers the earnings that stand behind an application.

What a denial rate counts

The file holds first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, reported for 2024 by lenders above the HMDA reporting thresholds. It splits each tract by loan purpose. Home-purchase applications were denied 9.0% of the time, refinance applications 20.7% and cash-out refinance applications 35.8% (Table 1). The chapter uses home-purchase applications throughout. The rates differ by purpose, so a mix of purposes would let the mix of loans move a place's rate. Only the home-purchase file has enough applications by group. In it, 8,232 tracts have a published rate for non-Hispanic Black applicants, against 1,155 for refinance loans and 2,938 for cash-out loans.

Table 1. Decided home-purchase applications were denied 9.0% of the time, against 20.7% for refinance and 35.8% for cash-out refinance loans

The rate is denied applications divided by decided applications, those that the lender originated or denied. Applications that the applicant withdrew or left incomplete, loans approved but not accepted, and loans bought from another lender are outside it. A borrower who was discouraged before applying, or steered to a different loan, never enters it. Every rate here is pooled, with denied and decided counts summed over tracts. Pooled over 76,072 tracts in every state and DC, lenders denied 278,451 of the 3,097,390 home-purchase applications that they decided in 2024, a rate of 9.0% (95% CI 8.7% to 9.3%). The median tract decides only 31 applications, so a single tract's rate is noisy. Intervals are 95% intervals from a bootstrap that resamples whole counties.

When the file was staged, any cell with fewer than 10 applications, whatever their outcome and purchased loans included, was suppressed. That is a rule of this book and not an HMDA flag. A suppressed cell is missing, never zero, and leaves both the denied and the decided counts. On that rule 5,999 tracts have no all-applicant home-purchase cell, each holding at most 9 applications. A cell for one group is withheld more often, because the group itself needs 10 applications in the tract. Each group's rate therefore comes from its own set of tracts.

The floor counts applications of every outcome, so a published cell can rest on few decided applications. Of the 76,072 tracts, 4,865 decided fewer than 10. Leaving out tracts below 30 decided applications lowers the overall rate from 9.0% to 8.5% (95% CI 8.2% to 8.8%).

Puerto Rico's 637 tracts with a published cell are set aside. Of those with a deprivation rank, 69% sit where the most deprived tenth of the other tracts begins, and the pooled rate there is 19.1% (95% CI 18.3% to 20.0%) on 11,409 decided applications. Including them would move the most deprived tenth from 13.8% to 14.1% and the overall rate by 0.04 points.

HMDA records an applicant's ethnicity and race as the applicant reports them, with fallback rules when the applicant does not answer. The tract file keeps four groups: applicants who are white and not Hispanic or Latino, Black or African American and not Hispanic or Latino, Hispanic or Latino of any race, and Asian and not Hispanic or Latino. The chapter calls them non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic and non-Hispanic Asian applicants. Applicants who are American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, of two or more races, joint, or of unavailable race count in the all-applicant rate only. The four groups therefore do not add up to it. Loan type (conventional, FHA, VA or USDA) is not in the tract file.

Denial rates rise with deprivation after the third tenth

The 75,978 tracts that have a deprivation rank are ranked by the Area Deprivation Index national rank and cut into tenths with near-equal numbers of tracts (tracts tied on the rank stay in one tenth). The 94 tracts with no rank are left out of this and the next two sections. The denial rate is 7.8% (95% CI 7.2% to 8.4%) in the least deprived tenth, 7.7% in the second and 7.6% in the third. The differences among those three tenths are within sampling error.

After the third tenth the rate rises at every step, to 13.8% (95% CI 13.3% to 14.3%) in the most deprived tenth (Table 2). That is 6.0 (95% CI 5.2 to 6.8) points above the least deprived tenth and 6.2 (95% CI 5.6 to 6.8) above the third. The last step, from the ninth tenth to the tenth, is the largest.

The rank is built partly from income and housing costs, so the curve mixes where an applicant lives with how much money applicants there have. The file reports both: the median applicant income and the median loan amount of each tract. Averaged over the tracts of a tenth and weighted by decided applications, they are $64 thousand (95% CI $63 thousand to $65 thousand) and $162 thousand (95% CI $158 thousand to $167 thousand) in the most deprived tenth, against $279 thousand (95% CI $266 thousand to $292 thousand) and $827 thousand (95% CI $774 thousand to $879 thousand) in the least deprived. The least deprived tenth holds the largest loans. The tract file does not say whether loan size, income or credit history sits behind a denial, so the curve describes where applications are denied and not why.

Table 2. The denial rate was 7.8% in the least deprived tenth of tracts and 13.8% in the most deprived, and it is level across the three least deprived tenths

Single tracts scatter around the tenth means. One denial moves the rate of a tract that decides few applications by several points, and the dots in the figure come only from tracts that decided at least 30.

Black and Hispanic applicants are denied more often than white applicants

Over the tracts where each group's cell is published, non-Hispanic white applicants were denied 6.5% (95% CI 6.3% to 6.6%) of the time, non-Hispanic Asian applicants 8.9% (95% CI 8.4% to 9.4%), Hispanic applicants 13.1% (95% CI 12.4% to 13.9%) and non-Hispanic Black applicants 17.0% (95% CI 16.4% to 17.7%). Each rate rests on a different set of tracts, so that comparison mixes places with groups. Within tenths of tract deprivation, the Black and Hispanic rates are above the white rate in every tenth drawn, and so is the Asian rate in the first eight (Table 3).

The white curve is U-shaped. It is 6.7% (95% CI 6.0% to 7.5%) in the least deprived tenth, 5.4% in the third and 10.4% in the most deprived.

The other three groups rise with deprivation. The Black rate goes from 14.6% in the third tenth to 20.3% in the most deprived, and the Hispanic rate from 11.8% to 14.2%. The Asian rate goes from 7.8% in the least deprived tenth to 12.9% in the eighth.

Table 3. In every tenth of tracts with enough applications, Black and Hispanic applicants were denied more often than white applicants

A point is drawn when it rests on at least 100 tracts. That drops the Black rate in the least deprived tenth and the Asian rate in the ninth and tenth, where few tracts have 10 or more applications from the group.

The gap within a tract shows no trend with deprivation or applicant income

Comparing groups across tracts mixes who lives where with how applications fare. A narrower comparison keeps only tracts where both groups have a published cell and sets each group's pooled rate in those tracts side by side. In the 5,657 tracts that hold both Black and white cells, Black applicants were denied 16.2% (95% CI 15.7% to 16.8%) of the time and white applicants 6.2% (95% CI 6.0% to 6.5%) (Table 4). The gap is 10.0 (95% CI 9.5 to 10.4) points, or 2.6 (95% CI 2.5 to 2.7) times the white rate.

Hispanic applicants were denied 12.8% (95% CI 12.2% to 13.5%) of the time against 6.5% (95% CI 6.2% to 6.8%) for white applicants in the same 10,189 tracts, a gap of 6.4 (95% CI 5.9 to 6.9) points or 2.0 (95% CI 1.9 to 2.1) times. For Asian applicants the rates were 8.9% (95% CI 8.5% to 9.4%) and 5.7% (95% CI 5.4% to 6.0%) in 5,490 tracts, a gap of 3.2 (95% CI 2.8 to 3.6) points or 1.6 (95% CI 1.5 to 1.7) times. The Black gap is larger than the Hispanic gap, which is larger than the Asian gap.

Over each group's own tracts the Black gap is 10.5 (95% CI 9.9 to 11.2) points, so holding the tract fixed changes little. The tracts that hold both cells are a small and selected set, and 27% of their Black cells rest on fewer than 10 decided applications. Requiring at least 10 decided applications from both groups leaves the Black gap at 10.0 (95% CI 9.5 to 10.6) points. Requiring at least 30 leaves it at 10.8 (95% CI 10.1 to 11.6) points.

Table 4. In the tracts that hold both groups, Black applicants were denied 16.2% of the time and white applicants 6.2%

The gap shows no trend with the deprivation of the tract or with the typical applicant income in it. Across tenths of the deprivation index, the same-tract gap between Black and white applicants runs from 8.6 to 10.4 points, and its interval is above zero in every tenth. Its slope is 0.00 (95% CI −0.22 to 0.21) points per tenth. Single tenths differ from one another, so the claim is about the trend and not about every tenth. The ratio of the Black rate to the white rate is lower in the most deprived tenth, 2.0 (95% CI 1.8 to 2.3), than in the fifth tenth, 2.8 (95% CI 2.6 to 3.0). The white rate is higher in the most deprived tenth, so the same gap in points is a smaller multiple.

Fifths of tracts by the median income reported on their applications run from $74 thousand or less to $125 thousand or more. Across them the gap runs from 9.1 to 10.3 points, with a slope of −0.06 (95% CI −0.33 to 0.20) points per fifth (Table 5).

Table 5. The same-tract gap between Black and white applicants stays between 8.6 and 10.4 percentage points across tenths of tract deprivation

A tract holds the neighborhood fixed and leaves the applicant free to differ. Applicants in one tract can differ in credit history, debt relative to income, the down payment, the loan type and the lender they chose, and none of these is in the tract file. A study of Boston lenders, published in 1996, added fields for credit history, debt burdens and loan-to-value ratios to the application records. With those fields, the difference in denial rates between minority and white applicants narrowed and did not disappear.[1] The tract file cannot repeat that exercise. Its gaps can be larger or smaller than the gaps among applicants with the same finances, and the data do not say which.

Causal evidenceMatched-pair email correspondence experiment

Whether loan officers respond differently to names that signal race

Hanson, Hawley, Martin and Liu test the step that comes before an application.[2] They emailed licensed mortgage loan originators with a first inquiry about a loan. The inquiries varied the sender's name, chosen to signal a Black or a white sender, and the credit score the sender reported. Because the researchers set the name and the reported score in each inquiry, a difference in how originators replied can be attributed to them. Originators answered inquiries with Black-signaling names less often, and they gave those senders less loan information and sent fewer follow-up messages. The authors compare the size of the name effect on response with the effect of a credit score 71 points lower.

The experiment measures replies to inquiries and ends before any application, so it observes no denial. Its estimates are for the originators and inquiries in the sample.

A person whose inquiry goes unanswered, or is answered with less information, may never apply, and does not appear in a denial rate. That is one way the applications in this chapter differ from the people who looked for a loan.

Grades drawn in the 1930s and denial rates in 2024

Between 1935 and 1940 the Home Owners' Loan Corporation graded neighborhoods in the cities it surveyed from A, labeled best, to D, labeled hazardous.[3] Chapter 5.2, Home value, income and redlining describes the maps and sets the grades beside life expectancy and home values. Here each grade is matched to 2020 tracts. A tract takes the grade that covers most of its area when graded polygons cover at least 50% of it. That gives 10,967 graded tracts in the country, of which 8,748 have a published home-purchase cell and a deprivation rank, in 221 city and state pairs. They are the cities that HOLC surveyed and not a sample of the country.

Graded tracts hold 7.3% of the decided applications in this chapter. Their pooled denial rate is 10.3% (95% CI 9.5% to 11.1%), against 8.9% (95% CI 8.6% to 9.2%) in all other tracts with a deprivation rank. Among graded tracts, denial rates rise from 7.9% (95% CI 7.0% to 9.0%) in grade A tracts to 9.4% in B and 10.9% in C, and differ little between C and D, which has 11.3% (95% CI 10.2% to 12.5%).

The gap between D and A is 3.4 (95% CI 2.1 to 4.7) points (Table 6), and the step from C to D is 0.4 (95% CI −0.6 to 1.5). Comparing tracts within the same city leaves the gap at 3.5 (95% CI 2.1 to 4.8). Requiring graded polygons to cover at least 90% of a tract leaves it at 2.8 (95% CI 1.0 to 4.6).

Comparing tracts of the same city and the same tenth of the deprivation index removes the gap. That comparison gives each of 1,008 city and tenth cells its own baseline. Grade D tracts differ from grade A tracts by 0.0 (95% CI −1.1 to 1.1) points in that comparison, and grade B and C tracts by −0.2 (95% CI −0.9 to 0.5) and −0.4 (95% CI −1.3 to 0.6), all with intervals around zero. In 2024 the differences across grades line up with the deprivation of the tracts today. The comparison does not say whether the maps had a part in how those tracts came to be deprived, and the boundary study in Chapter 5.2, Home value, income and redlining addresses that question for housing outcomes.

Whether the grade gradient differs by applicant group cannot be told from these data. Grade D minus grade A is 1.4 (95% CI 0.2 to 2.8) points for white applicants, 0.1 (95% CI −5.5 to 6.0) for Black applicants and −1.3 (95% CI −7.7 to 4.4) for Hispanic applicants, each over the tracts where the group's cell is published. The Black and Hispanic intervals hold zero and also the all-applicant gap, and the white gap minus the Black gap is 1.3 (95% CI −5.0 to 7.4) points. Grade A tracts have few cells for these groups.

The mix of applicants also changes with the grade. Published Black and Hispanic cells account for 7.8% (95% CI 5.0% to 11.0%) of decided applications in grade A tracts and 15.0% (95% CI 11.2% to 18.9%) in grade D tracts. Those shares are lower bounds, because withheld cells are not counted. Both groups have higher denial rates, so part of the all-applicant gradient reflects who applies in each kind of tract.

Table 6. Denial rates rise from 7.9% in grade A tracts to 11.3% in grade D tracts, and no grade differs detectably from grade A among tracts of the same city and the same tenth of the deprivation index

The Cook County map shows the same data at tract scale (Table 7). Of its 1,331 tracts, 914 decided at least 20 home-purchase applications and are shaded, and 417 are gray, each with its reason in the tooltip. The Chicago map graded 759 of the county's tracts, all of them in the city, and the ungraded tracts include parts of the county that the map did not reach.

Among the shaded tracts, 53.0% of those in the top fifth of denial rates and 57.7% of those in the bottom fifth were graded, a difference of −4.7 (95% CI −14.8 to 5.6) points. That compares graded with ungraded tracts, which is not the comparison of grade D with grade A. The interval is too wide for these data to say whether a tract's place in the graded part of the county goes with a higher or a lower denial rate.

Within the graded part, the pooled rate is 5.4% (95% CI 2.5% to 8.9%) in grade A tracts, which rest on 11 tracts. It is 12.3% (95% CI 10.1% to 14.8%) in B, 11.0% (95% CI 10.0% to 12.0%) in C and 9.8% (95% CI 8.4% to 11.3%) in D, against 11.4% (95% CI 10.8% to 12.1%) in tracts with no grade.

Table 7. In Cook County, 53.0% of the tracts in the top fifth of denial rates and 57.7% of those in the bottom fifth lie in the part of the county that the 1930s map graded, a difference these data cannot tell from zero

The denial rate rises with deprivation under all four rankings

The comparison uses the 71,169 tracts that have a published home-purchase cell and all four rankings, cut into tenths under each ranking (Table 8). Ranked by the Area Deprivation Index on that sample, the denial rate among decided applications runs from 7.8% (95% CI 7.2% to 8.5%) in the least deprived tenth to 13.7% (95% CI 13.3% to 14.3%) in the most deprived, and the rank correlation between tenth and rate is +0.95. Under the standardized index it runs from 7.0% (95% CI 6.6% to 7.4%) to 14.8% (95% CI 14.1% to 15.5%) with a rank correlation of +1.00, under median household income from 7.0% (95% CI 6.6% to 7.4%) to 13.8% (95% CI 13.2% to 14.5%) and under the bachelor's degree share from 6.8% (95% CI 6.4% to 7.4%) to 13.2% (95% CI 12.8% to 13.8%). All four rankings put the higher rate at the more deprived end with a steady rise, so none of the three alternatives counts as a change under the rule in Chapter 9.1, How far one ranking goes.

Table 8. The mortgage denial rate is steadily worse toward the more deprived end under the ADI and under each of the three other rankings

What these data cannot show

Applications are not the population. A denial rate is a share of the applications that reached a decision, and who applies differs across tracts and groups. People who expect a denial, who are steered to another loan or who cannot get an answer to an inquiry do not appear, and withdrawn applications leave the rate. The file covers one year and the lenders above the reporting thresholds.

The tract totals hold no credit score, debt-to-income ratio, loan-to-value ratio, loan type or lender for any applicant. A gap between groups, even inside one tract, is therefore not evidence of discrimination by itself and not a measure of how much treatment differs. The application-level HMDA records carry some of those fields and up to four denial reasons for each denied application. Lenders report those reasons themselves, they are not audited, and the tract aggregate does not keep them.

The groups are reported groups. The ethnicity and race in HMDA come from the applicant where the applicant answers and from fallback rules where not, and the four groups leave out other and unreported applicants. A group's cell exists only in tracts with 10 or more of its applications, so group comparisons cover the tracts with more applicants of that group and not a random sample of tracts.

The intervals resample counties. Applications at one lender share its rules and cross county lines, so the intervals do not capture correlation within a lender and may be narrower than the uncertainty. The tenths and grades describe tracts and the applications reported in them. They are not the experience of one borrower, and a pattern across places need not hold for the people inside them (ecological inference). The deprivation index understates deprivation in high-cost cities and is built partly from income and housing costs, which are also what a lender weighs.

The grades followed the housing, incomes and populations of the 1930s, so a tract's grade stands for a mix of what the neighborhood was and what happened after. The adjusted contrast compares tracts of the same city and the same tenth of the index and cannot say whether the maps shaped today's deprivation. A city that HOLC did not survey is absent from the comparison, which does not mean it had no redlining. Tooltip intervals on the Cook County map treat applications as independent and are narrower than a bootstrap over tracts would give.

Tables

Table 1. Decided home-purchase applications were denied 9.0% of the time, against 20.7% for refinance and 35.8% for cash-out refinance loans

Denied share of decided applications, tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published cell, 2024, by loan purpose

Loan purpose	Tracts with a published cell	Decided applications	Denial rate (%)	Lower limit of the 95% interval (%)	Upper limit of the 95% interval (%)	Tracts with a published rate for Black applicants
Home purchase	76,072	3,097,390	9.0	8.7	9.3	8,232
Refinance	36,779	440,105	20.7	20.2	21.2	1,155
Cash-out refinance	46,525	616,812	35.8	35.3	36.4	2,938

Note: Each row counts tracts whose all-applicant cell for the purpose has 10 or more applications, a withholding rule of this book's staging step that counts applications of every action taken. Cells under that floor are missing, never zero, and leave both the denied and the decided counts. Tracts differ across rows because the floor binds more often for refinance and cash-out loans.

Note: The file covers first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, from lenders above the HMDA reporting thresholds. Loan type (conventional, FHA, VA or USDA) is not in the tract file. Puerto Rico is left out.

Source: HMDA Loan/Application Register, 2024, tract totals of decided applications; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; full counts, pooled rates

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/denial_by_loan_purpose.json

Table 2. The denial rate was 7.8% in the least deprived tenth of tracts and 13.8% in the most deprived, and it is level across the three least deprived tenths

Denied share of decided home-purchase applications, 2024, against the tract's Area Deprivation Index national rank: sampled tracts with at least 30 decided applications as dots and pooled rates for tenths of tracts as the line

No inline rows: the values of Table 2 are in /data/mortgage-denials/denial_vs_deprivation_tracts.json.

Note: Dots are drawn from the tracts that decided at least 30 applications, with a fixed seed (stated in the methods note). The pooled rates use every tract with a published cell and a rank, 75,978 tracts, in tenths that hold near-equal numbers of tracts. A tract with no rank is left out (94 tracts).

Note: Across all the ranked tracts the pooled denial rate is 9.0%.

Note: The Area Deprivation Index is a national percentile, 1 least and 100 most deprived, and it understates deprivation in high-cost cities. Rates are not adjusted for the applicant's credit, debts, loan size or loan type, which the tract file does not hold.

Source: HMDA Loan/Application Register, 2024, tract totals of decided applications; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; full counts, pooled rates

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/denial_vs_deprivation.json

Table 3. In every tenth of tracts with enough applications, Black and Hispanic applicants were denied more often than white applicants

Denied share of decided home-purchase applications, 2024, by applicant group and tenth of tracts on the Area Deprivation Index (1 = least deprived), points on at least 100 tracts

conf_high	conf_low	estimate	series	tenth	tracts
7.47	6.01	6.72	Non-Hispanic white	1	4805
5.85	5.24	5.53	Non-Hispanic white	2	5356
5.65	5.17	5.41	Non-Hispanic white	3	5868
5.79	5.34	5.56	Non-Hispanic white	4	6305
5.86	5.42	5.64	Non-Hispanic white	5	6150
6.51	6.03	6.28	Non-Hispanic white	6	6079
6.90	6.49	6.69	Non-Hispanic white	7	6079
7.50	7.08	7.29	Non-Hispanic white	8	5995
8.55	8.08	8.31	Non-Hispanic white	9	5763
10.77	10.10	10.43	Non-Hispanic white	10	4227
16.80	13.85	15.46	Non-Hispanic Black	2	439
15.56	13.77	14.64	Non-Hispanic Black	3	633
16.86	14.74	15.80	Non-Hispanic Black	4	910
17.34	15.54	16.45	Non-Hispanic Black	5	1022
18.32	15.95	17.18	Non-Hispanic Black	6	1099
18.03	15.91	16.97	Non-Hispanic Black	7	1075
18.60	16.31	17.44	Non-Hispanic Black	8	973
19.54	17.20	18.38	Non-Hispanic Black	9	902
21.58	19.02	20.30	Non-Hispanic Black	10	1081
14.04	10.71	12.35	Hispanic (any race)	1	389
13.35	10.85	12.01	Hispanic (any race)	2	1376
12.59	11.07	11.85	Hispanic (any race)	3	1847
13.28	11.39	12.31	Hispanic (any race)	4	2307
14.32	12.51	13.46	Hispanic (any race)	5	2242
14.49	12.39	13.43	Hispanic (any race)	6	2143
14.89	12.78	13.83	Hispanic (any race)	7	1874
15.46	13.05	14.21	Hispanic (any race)	8	1536
15.24	12.83	14	Hispanic (any race)	9	1285
15.74	12.86	14.18	Hispanic (any race)	10	1045
8.74	7.25	7.84	Non-Hispanic Asian	1	2241
9.19	7.98	8.51	Non-Hispanic Asian	2	1661
9.69	8.02	8.85	Non-Hispanic Asian	3	1243
10.36	8.83	9.55	Non-Hispanic Asian	4	938
11.42	9.05	10.17	Non-Hispanic Asian	5	626
11.64	9.10	10.40	Non-Hispanic Asian	6	394
14.02	10.09	11.92	Non-Hispanic Asian	7	237
14.47	11.01	12.85	Non-Hispanic Asian	8	103

Note: Groups are the applicant's reported ethnicity and race as HMDA derives them: non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic of any race and non-Hispanic Asian. Other and unreported applicants count in the all-applicant rate only, so the four groups do not add to it.

Note: A group's cell is published only in tracts with 10 or more of its applications, so each line covers a different set of tracts, and the sets for Black, Hispanic and Asian applicants are smaller than the set for white applicants. A point is drawn when it rests on at least 100 tracts; the Black line starts at the second tenth and the Asian line stops at the eighth.

Source: HMDA Loan/Application Register, 2024, tract totals of decided applications; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; full counts, pooled rates

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/denial_by_group_and_deprivation.json

Table 4. In the tracts that hold both groups, Black applicants were denied 16.2% of the time and white applicants 6.2%

Denied share of decided home-purchase applications, 2024, for each applicant group and for non-Hispanic white applicants in the same tracts, tracts where both cells are published

group	hi	lo	rate	tracts	white	white_hi	white_lo
Non-Hispanic Black applicants	16.77	15.67	16.20	5657	6.23	6.50	5.96
Hispanic (any race) applicants	13.53	12.17	12.83	10189	6.47	6.77	6.19
Non-Hispanic Asian applicants	9.37	8.50	8.91	5490	5.70	5.99	5.42

Note: The same tract holds the neighborhood fixed, not the applicant. The tract file has no credit score, debt-to-income ratio, loan-to-value ratio, loan type or lender for each applicant, so a gap here is not evidence of discrimination by itself and the data cannot say how much of it these items account for.

Note: The tracts that hold both cells are 7.4% of all tracts for Black applicants. The tracts differ by row (5,657 for Black applicants, 10,189 for Hispanic applicants and 5,490 for Asian applicants), because a cell exists only where a group has 10 or more applications. Over each group's own tracts the Black gap is 10.5 points.

Source: HMDA Loan/Application Register, 2024, tract totals of decided applications; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; full counts, pooled rates

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/same_tract_gaps.json

Table 5. The same-tract gap between Black and white applicants stays between 8.6 and 10.4 percentage points across tenths of tract deprivation

Black minus white denied share of decided home-purchase applications, 2024, in tracts where both cells are published, by tenth of tracts on the deprivation index and by fifth of tracts on median applicant income

Table 5.1. By tract deprivation

The Black minus white gap is positive in every tenth of tract deprivation

Percentage points of denial rate, Black minus white applicants in the same tracts, by tenth of tracts on the Area Deprivation Index (1 = least deprived)

conf_high	conf_low	gap	tenth	tracts
13.59	7.64	10.31	1	77
11.12	7.84	9.57	2	335
9.56	7.69	8.61	3	514
10.79	8.83	9.81	4	725
11.14	9.46	10.33	5	809
11.61	9.34	10.45	6	849
10.36	8.55	9.44	7	776
10.85	8.70	9.72	8	628
11.39	9.06	10.19	9	547
10.72	7.92	9.32	10	395

Table 5.2. By tract applicant income

The Black minus white gap is positive in every fifth of tracts by median applicant income

Percentage points of denial rate, Black minus white applicants in the same tracts, by fifth of tracts on the median income reported by applicants (1 = lowest)

conf_high	conf_low	fifth	gap	tracts
10.06	8.46	1	9.23	1124
11.06	9.51	2	10.30	1149
11.11	9.30	3	10.15	1103
10.68	9.19	4	9.96	1146
9.99	8.13	5	9.12	1135

Note: The tenths hold near-equal numbers of the tracts with a rank (tracts tied on the rank stay together); the fifths hold near-equal numbers of the 5,657 tracts that hold both cells and a median applicant income, so a fifth groups tracts by the typical income of their applicants and not applicants by their own income. The median income is the median of the incomes reported on the tract's applications.

Note: The ratio of the Black to the white rate is 2.8 in the fifth tenth and 2.0 in the most deprived tenth.

Source: HMDA Loan/Application Register, 2024, tract totals of decided applications; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; full counts, pooled rates

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/gap_by_deprivation_and_income.json

Table 6. Denial rates rise from 7.9% in grade A tracts to 11.3% in grade D tracts, and no grade differs detectably from grade A among tracts of the same city and the same tenth of the deprivation index

Denied share of decided home-purchase applications, 2024, in tracts graded on the 1930s HOLC maps: by grade, as a difference from grade A under three adjustments, and by applicant group

Table 6.1. By grade

The denial rate rises from grade A to grade C and differs little between grades C and D

Denied share of decided home-purchase applications, 2024, pooled over tracts of each HOLC grade

conf_high	conf_low	estimate	grade	label	tracts
8.96	6.98	7.91	A	Grade A	650
10.27	8.47	9.37	B	Grade B	2003
11.81	10.01	10.91	C	Grade C	4008
12.50	10.21	11.32	D	Grade D	2087

Table 6.2. Within city and deprivation

Within a city and a tenth of the deprivation index, no grade differs detectably from grade A

Denial rate of tracts of each grade minus that of grade A tracts, percentage points, from weighted regressions with errors clustered by county

comparison	conf_high	conf_low	estimate	specification	tracts
Grade B against grade A	2.41	0.520	1.47	No adjustment	8748
Grade C against grade A	4.10	1.91	3.01	No adjustment	8748
Grade D against grade A	4.74	2.09	3.42	No adjustment	8748
Grade B against grade A	2.59	1.01	1.80	Same city	8748
Grade C against grade A	3.97	1.99	2.98	Same city	8748
Grade D against grade A	4.83	2.15	3.49	Same city	8748
Grade B against grade A	0.480	−0.910	−0.210	Same city and tenth of the deprivation index	8748
Grade C against grade A	0.620	−1.35	−0.360	Same city and tenth of the deprivation index	8748
Grade D against grade A	1.08	−1.06	0.010	Same city and tenth of the deprivation index	8748

Table 6.3. By applicant group

The grade D minus grade A difference is 1.4 points for white applicants, and the intervals for Black and Hispanic applicants are too wide to say whether it differs

Denied share of decided home-purchase applications, 2024, by applicant group and HOLC grade of the tract, points on at least 30 tracts

conf_high	conf_low	estimate	grade	group	label	tracts
5.94	4.54	5.17	A	Non-Hispanic white	Grade A	517
6.39	5.12	5.71	B	Non-Hispanic white	Grade B	1250
6.79	5.66	6.18	C	Non-Hispanic white	Grade C	1912
7.91	5.47	6.52	D	Non-Hispanic white	Grade D	848
25.15	15.20	20.41	A	Non-Hispanic Black	Grade A	63
20.99	15.16	17.88	B	Non-Hispanic Black	Grade B	301
21.40	17.73	19.60	C	Non-Hispanic Black	Grade C	494
23.35	17.39	20.49	D	Non-Hispanic Black	Grade D	252
23.31	11.30	16.97	A	Hispanic (any race)	Grade A	60
16.20	12.54	14.17	B	Hispanic (any race)	Grade B	322
15.70	13.78	14.90	C	Hispanic (any race)	Grade C	792
17.20	14.08	15.72	D	Hispanic (any race)	Grade D	331
9.94	4.33	6.80	A	Non-Hispanic Asian	Grade A	37
12.50	7.66	10.10	B	Non-Hispanic Asian	Grade B	159
14.48	9.04	11.98	C	Non-Hispanic Asian	Grade C	313
14.19	8.04	11.17	D	Non-Hispanic Asian	Grade D	168

Note: A tract takes a grade when graded polygons cover at least 50% of its area, and the grade that covers the most of it. The tracts are the 8,748 graded tracts with a published cell and a deprivation rank, in 221 city and state pairs. With a stricter rule, graded polygons covering at least 90% of a tract, the gap between grades D and A is 2.8 points. The comparison is descriptive: the grades followed the housing, incomes and populations of the 1930s, and the HOLC cities are not a national sample.

Note: The adjusted differences come from weighted regressions of the tract denial rate on grade, weighted by decided applications, with errors clustered by county, on the 8,748 graded tracts. The third adjustment gives each of 1,008 city and tenth cells its own baseline, so a grade is compared with another grade only inside a cell that holds tracts of both.

Source: HMDA Loan/Application Register, 2024, tract totals of decided applications; Mapping Inequality HOLC maps (1935-1940) overlaid on 2020 tracts; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; full counts, pooled rates

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/denial_by_holc_grade.json

Table 7. In Cook County, 53.0% of the tracts in the top fifth of denial rates and 57.7% of those in the bottom fifth lie in the part of the county that the 1930s map graded, a difference these data cannot tell from zero

Denied share of decided home-purchase applications, 2024, in Cook County tracts with at least 20 decided applications, and the HOLC grade covering most of each tract

No inline rows: the values of Table 7 are in /data/mortgage-denials/cook_denial_map.json.

Views: Denial rate (every row); 1930s HOLC grade (every row).

Note: 914 of the 1,331 tracts have a rate and 417 do not, because the tract has fewer than 20 decided applications, fewer than 10 applications in all (withheld), or no row in the file. 759 tracts have a grade, all of them in Chicago. The rate in the tooltip carries a 95% interval from the Wilson formula, which treats applications as independent, so it is narrower than a bootstrap over tracts would give.

Note: The share graded in the top fifth minus the share in the bottom fifth is −4.7 percentage points, with an interval from a bootstrap over tracts that includes zero. Pooled over the shaded tracts, the denial rate is 5.4% in grade A tracts, 12.3% in B, 11.0% in C, 9.8% in D and 11.4% in tracts with no grade, with intervals from a bootstrap over tracts.

Source: HMDA Loan/Application Register, 2024, tract totals of decided applications; Mapping Inequality HOLC maps (1935-1940) overlaid on 2020 tracts; full counts, pooled rates

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/cook_denial_map.json

Table 8. The mortgage denial rate is steadily worse toward the more deprived end under the ADI and under each of the three other rankings

Denied share of decided applications (%) by tenth of tracts ranked four ways, over the 71,169 tracts that have all four rankings

bin	conf_high	conf_low	estimate	n_units	ranking
1	8.47	7.17	7.83	7,181	Area Deprivation Index
2	8.24	7.25	7.75	7,109	Area Deprivation Index
3	7.97	7.22	7.60	7,041	Area Deprivation Index
4	8.73	7.92	8.32	7,292	Area Deprivation Index
5	9.03	8.13	8.57	7,035	Area Deprivation Index
6	9.62	8.69	9.15	7,149	Area Deprivation Index
7	10.02	9.14	9.57	7,164	Area Deprivation Index
8	10.47	9.59	10.01	6,993	Area Deprivation Index
9	11.31	10.49	10.88	7,045	Area Deprivation Index
10	14.26	13.29	13.75	7,160	Area Deprivation Index
1	7.41	6.62	7.01	7,116	Standardized index
2	7.34	6.76	7.04	7,117	Standardized index
3	7.98	7.39	7.67	7,117	Standardized index
4	8.57	7.89	8.23	7,117	Standardized index
5	9.08	8.39	8.73	7,117	Standardized index
6	9.53	8.87	9.19	7,117	Standardized index
7	10.73	9.86	10.28	7,117	Standardized index
8	11.42	10.54	10.98	7,117	Standardized index
9	12.50	11.60	12.03	7,117	Standardized index
10	15.45	14.15	14.78	7,117	Standardized index
1	7.39	6.64	7.01	7,116	Median household income
2	7.62	7.02	7.33	7,118	Median household income
3	8.12	7.49	7.80	7,116	Median household income
4	8.71	8.06	8.38	7,117	Median household income
5	9.35	8.59	8.96	7,117	Median household income
6	9.68	8.92	9.29	7,117	Median household income
7	10.35	9.57	9.95	7,116	Median household income
8	11.18	10.29	10.73	7,121	Median household income
9	12.29	11.23	11.74	7,114	Median household income
10	14.48	13.23	13.80	7,117	Median household income
1	7.36	6.41	6.84	7,116	Bachelor's degree share
2	7.57	6.83	7.18	7,116	Bachelor's degree share
3	8.05	7.31	7.68	7,118	Bachelor's degree share
4	8.53	7.88	8.20	7,114	Bachelor's degree share
5	9.13	8.45	8.78	7,122	Bachelor's degree share
6	9.67	8.84	9.24	7,115	Bachelor's degree share
7	10.31	9.52	9.90	7,123	Bachelor's degree share
8	11.10	10.37	10.73	7,103	Bachelor's degree share
9	11.84	11.07	11.44	7,123	Bachelor's degree share
10	13.75	12.75	13.23	7,119	Bachelor's degree share

Note: Least and most deprived tenth: ADI 7.8% and 13.7%, rank correlation +0.95; standardized index 7.0% and 14.8%, +1.00; median household income 7.0% and 13.8%, +1.00; bachelor's degree share 6.8% and 13.2%, +1.00.

Note: The standardized index applies the ADI's coefficients to its measures after standardizing each one, so home value and income carry less weight than in the ADI. Income and degree share are single census measures, each ranked from the highest value to the lowest.

Source: HMDA Loan/Application Register, 2024, tract totals of decided applications; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; full counts, pooled rates; ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 tract tables (B19013, B15003 and the 15 rebuilt ADI measures)

Data: vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/alt_rankings.json

All estimates

Every fact in facts.json (138), sorted by id. The same values as JSON: facts.json.

Fact id	Value	Unit	Estimand	Population	Period	Interval	n	Weights	Source	Note
alt_adi_least	7.8%	Denied share of decided applications (%)	pooled denial rate (denied applications divided by applications originated or denied, summed over the tracts); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties	the least deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Area Deprivation Index, among the tracts with all four rankings	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 7.2% to 8.5%	7,181 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_adi_most	13.7%	Denied share of decided applications (%)	pooled denial rate (denied applications divided by applications originated or denied, summed over the tracts); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties	the most deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Area Deprivation Index, among the tracts with all four rankings	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 13.3% to 14.3%	7,160 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_adi_rho	+0.95	rank correlation	Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once	the bins of tracts ranked by Area Deprivation Index	applications decided in 2024			each bin counted once	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_degree_least	6.8%	Denied share of decided applications (%)	pooled denial rate (denied applications divided by applications originated or denied, summed over the tracts); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties	the least deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Bachelor's degree share, among the tracts with all four rankings	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 6.4% to 7.4%	7,116 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_degree_most	13.2%	Denied share of decided applications (%)	pooled denial rate (denied applications divided by applications originated or denied, summed over the tracts); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties	the most deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Bachelor's degree share, among the tracts with all four rankings	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 12.8% to 13.8%	7,119 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_degree_rho	+1.00	rank correlation	Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once	the bins of tracts ranked by Bachelor's degree share	applications decided in 2024			each bin counted once	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_income_least	7.0%	Denied share of decided applications (%)	pooled denial rate (denied applications divided by applications originated or denied, summed over the tracts); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties	the least deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Median household income, among the tracts with all four rankings	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 6.6% to 7.4%	7,116 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_income_most	13.8%	Denied share of decided applications (%)	pooled denial rate (denied applications divided by applications originated or denied, summed over the tracts); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties	the most deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Median household income, among the tracts with all four rankings	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 13.2% to 14.5%	7,117 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_income_rho	+1.00	rank correlation	Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once	the bins of tracts ranked by Median household income	applications decided in 2024			each bin counted once	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_n_places	71,169	tracts	count of tracts in the common sample of the ranking comparison	tracts with the outcome and all four rankings	applications decided in 2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_rho_cut	0.9	absolute rank correlation	threshold between a steady and an uneven gradient	the rule for changed gradients (docs/RANKING_SWITCH_RULE.md)	applications decided in 2024			none (a fixed rule)	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_rho_margin	0.1	absolute rank correlation	smallest move in the rank correlation that counts as a change of shape	the rule for changed gradients (docs/RANKING_SWITCH_RULE.md)	applications decided in 2024			none (a fixed rule)	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_std_least	7.0%	Denied share of decided applications (%)	pooled denial rate (denied applications divided by applications originated or denied, summed over the tracts); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties	the least deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Standardized index, among the tracts with all four rankings	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 6.6% to 7.4%	7,116 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_std_most	14.8%	Denied share of decided applications (%)	pooled denial rate (denied applications divided by applications originated or denied, summed over the tracts); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties	the most deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Standardized index, among the tracts with all four rankings	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 14.1% to 15.5%	7,117 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
alt_std_rho	+1.00	rank correlation	Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once	the bins of tracts ranked by Standardized index	applications decided in 2024			each bin counted once	HMDA mortgage lending
cloud_floor	30	decided applications	the number of decided applications a tract needs to be a dot in the scatter (a rule of this chapter)	a tract in the scatter of tract rates	2024			none (definition)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_bottom_graded	57.7%	percent of tracts that are graded	share of the tracts that have a HOLC grade	Cook County tracts in the bottom fifth of shaded tracts by denial rate	applications decided in 2024		182 tracts	none (each tract counts once)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_floor	20	decided applications	the number of decided applications a tract needs to be shaded (a rule of this chapter)	a Cook County tract on the map	applications decided in 2024			none (definition)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_graded_diff	−4.7	percentage points of tracts graded	share graded in the top fifth minus the share graded in the bottom fifth, bootstrap over tracts	Cook County tracts in the top fifth minus the bottom fifth of shaded tracts by denial rate	applications decided in 2024	95% CI −14.8 to 5.6	365 tracts	none (each tract counts once)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_n_graded	759	tracts	count of Cook County tracts with a grade (all in Chicago)	Cook County tracts covered at least half by graded HOLC polygons	HOLC maps drawn 1935 to 1940			none (full count)	Mapping Inequality (HOLC maps)
cook_n_gray	417	tracts	count of tracts drawn as no data on the denial-rate view	Cook County tracts without a shaded denial rate	applications decided in 2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_n_shaded	914	tracts	count of tracts shaded on the map	Cook County tracts with at least 20 decided home-purchase applications	applications decided in 2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_n_tracts	1,331	tracts	count of tracts on the Cook County map	census tracts of Cook County, Illinois	2020 tracts			none (full count)	Census TIGER/Line tracts
cook_rate_a	5.4%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), tract-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in shaded Cook County tracts graded A on the 1930s Chicago map	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 2.5% to 8.9%	11 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_rate_b	12.3%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), tract-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in shaded Cook County tracts graded B on the 1930s Chicago map	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 10.1% to 14.8%	61 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_rate_c	11.0%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), tract-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in shaded Cook County tracts graded C on the 1930s Chicago map	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 10.0% to 12.0%	256 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_rate_d	9.8%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), tract-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in shaded Cook County tracts graded D on the 1930s Chicago map	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 8.4% to 11.3%	107 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_rate_none	11.4%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), tract-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in shaded Cook County tracts with no grade (outside the area the Chicago map graded, or covered less than halfway)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 10.8% to 12.1%	479 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_top_graded	53.0%	percent of tracts that are graded	share of the tracts that have a HOLC grade	Cook County tracts in the top fifth of shaded tracts by denial rate	applications decided in 2024		183 tracts	none (each tract counts once)	HMDA mortgage lending
cook_tracts_a	11	tracts	count of tracts	shaded Cook County tracts graded A on the 1930s Chicago map	applications decided in 2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_asian	3.2	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate of the group minus that of non-Hispanic white applicants over the same tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Asian applicants minus non-Hispanic white applicants, applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Asian and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 2.8 to 3.6	5,490 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_black	10.0	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate of the group minus that of non-Hispanic white applicants over the same tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black applicants minus non-Hispanic white applicants, applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 9.5 to 10.4	5,657 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_black_ge10	10.0	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate of Black applicants minus that of white applicants over the same tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black minus non-Hispanic white applicants decided in 2024, in tracts where both groups have at least 10 decided applications	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 9.5 to 10.6	3,848 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_black_ge30	10.8	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate of Black applicants minus that of white applicants over the same tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black minus non-Hispanic white applicants decided in 2024, in tracts where both groups have at least 30 decided applications	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 10.1 to 11.6	521 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_black_own	10.5	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate of non-Hispanic Black applicants minus that of non-Hispanic white applicants, each over its own tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black applicants minus non-Hispanic white applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, each group over the tracts where its own cell is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 9.9 to 11.2	8,232 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_d10_d1	6.0	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate of the most deprived tenth minus that of the comparison tenth, county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in the most deprived tenth of tracts minus those in the least deprived tenth	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 5.2 to 6.8	3,027 counties	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_d10_d3	6.2	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate of the most deprived tenth minus that of the comparison tenth, county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in the most deprived tenth of tracts minus those in the third least deprived tenth	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 5.6 to 6.8	3,027 counties	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_dec_max	10.4	percentage points of denial rate	largest over the ten tenths of the same-tract gap in pooled denial rates	non-Hispanic Black minus non-Hispanic white applicants decided in 2024, in the tracts of one tenth where both cells are published	applications decided in 2024		10 tenths of tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_dec_min	8.6	percentage points of denial rate	smallest over the ten tenths of the same-tract gap in pooled denial rates	non-Hispanic Black minus non-Hispanic white applicants decided in 2024, in the tracts of one tenth where both cells are published	applications decided in 2024		10 tenths of tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_hispanic	6.4	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate of the group minus that of non-Hispanic white applicants over the same tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	Hispanic (any race) applicants minus non-Hispanic white applicants, applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for Hispanic (any race) and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 5.9 to 6.9	10,189 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_inc_max	10.3	percentage points of denial rate	largest over the five fifths of the same-tract gap in pooled denial rates	non-Hispanic Black minus non-Hispanic white applicants decided in 2024, in the tracts of one fifth by median applicant income where both cells are published	applications decided in 2024		5 fifths of tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_inc_min	9.1	percentage points of denial rate	smallest over the five fifths of the same-tract gap in pooled denial rates	non-Hispanic Black minus non-Hispanic white applicants decided in 2024, in the tracts of one fifth by median applicant income where both cells are published	applications decided in 2024		5 fifths of tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_slope_fifth	−0.06	percentage points of denial rate per fifth	least-squares slope of the five same-tract gaps on the fifth number, recomputed in every county bootstrap draw	non-Hispanic Black minus non-Hispanic white applicants decided in 2024, in the tracts of each fifth by median applicant income where both cells are published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI −0.33 to 0.20	5 fifths of tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
gap_slope_tenth	0.00	percentage points of denial rate per tenth	least-squares slope of the ten same-tract gaps on the tenth number, recomputed in every county bootstrap draw	non-Hispanic Black minus non-Hispanic white applicants decided in 2024, in the tracts of each tenth where both cells are published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI −0.22 to 0.21	10 tenths of tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
hanson_credit_points	71	points of credit score	the authors' comparison of the effect of a Black-signaling name on the originator's response with the effect of a lower stated credit score (Hanson, Hawley, Martin and Liu 2016; email correspondence experiment); copied from the paper's abstract and not computed in this build	licensed mortgage loan originators who received email inquiries from prospective borrowers with names that signal a Black or a white sender	as reported in the paper			as in the paper	Published estimates from cited studies	A published estimate, not a result of this build.
holc_bh_a	7.8%	percent of decided applications	decided applications in the published Black and Hispanic cells divided by decided applications of all applicants, summed over the tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded A, the share from published non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic cells (a lower bound, because withheld cells are not counted)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 5.0% to 11.0%	650 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_bh_d	15.0%	percent of decided applications	decided applications in the published Black and Hispanic cells divided by decided applications of all applicants, summed over the tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded D, the share from published non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic cells (a lower bound, because withheld cells are not counted)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 11.2% to 18.9%	2,087 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_cover_min	50%	percent of a tract's area	the share of a tract that graded polygons must cover for the tract to take a grade (a rule of this chapter, the same as the chapter on home value, income and redlining)	a tract matched to HOLC polygons	HOLC maps drawn 1935 to 1940			none (definition)	Mapping Inequality (HOLC maps)
holc_cover_strict	90%	percent of a tract's area	the stricter share of a tract that graded polygons must cover, used to show how the grade D minus grade A gap moves with the matching rule	a tract matched to HOLC polygons	HOLC maps drawn 1935 to 1940			none (definition)	Mapping Inequality (HOLC maps)
holc_dgap_black	0.1	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate in grade D tracts minus that in grade A tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in tracts graded D minus those in tracts graded A, each over the tracts where the cell for the group is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI −5.5 to 6.0	315 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_dgap_hispanic	−1.3	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate in grade D tracts minus that in grade A tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	Hispanic (any race) applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in tracts graded D minus those in tracts graded A, each over the tracts where the cell for the group is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI −7.7 to 4.4	391 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_dgap_wb	1.3	percentage points of denial rate	difference between the two grade D minus grade A pooled-rate gaps, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic white minus non-Hispanic Black applicants decided in 2024: the grade D minus grade A gap of white applicants minus that of Black applicants	applications decided in 2024	95% CI −5.0 to 7.4	315 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_dgap_white	1.4	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate in grade D tracts minus that in grade A tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic white applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in tracts graded D minus those in tracts graded A, each over the tracts where the cell for the group is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 0.2 to 2.8	1,365 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_gap_b_adi	−0.2	percentage points of denial rate	coefficient on grade B in a regression of the tract denial rate on grade with a separate baseline for each city and tenth cell, weighted by decided applications, errors clustered by county	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded B minus those in tracts graded A, among tracts of the same city and the same tenth of the Area Deprivation Index	applications decided in 2024	95% CI −0.9 to 0.5	8,748 tracts	decided applications	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_gap_c_adi	−0.4	percentage points of denial rate	coefficient on grade C in a regression of the tract denial rate on grade with a separate baseline for each city and tenth cell, weighted by decided applications, errors clustered by county	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded C minus those in tracts graded A, among tracts of the same city and the same tenth of the Area Deprivation Index	applications decided in 2024	95% CI −1.3 to 0.6	8,748 tracts	decided applications	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_gap_d_adi	0.0	percentage points of denial rate	coefficient on grade D in a regression of the tract denial rate on grade (A is the base) with a separate baseline for each city and tenth cell, weighted by decided applications, errors clustered by county	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded D minus those in tracts graded A, among tracts of the same city and the same tenth of the Area Deprivation Index (a separate baseline for each city and tenth cell)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI −1.1 to 1.1	8,748 tracts	decided applications	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_gap_d_city	3.5	percentage points of denial rate	coefficient on grade D in a regression of the tract denial rate on grade (A is the base) with a separate baseline for each city, weighted by decided applications, errors clustered by county	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded D minus those in tracts graded A, among tracts of the same city	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 2.1 to 4.8	8,748 tracts	decided applications	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_gap_d_raw	3.4	percentage points of denial rate	coefficient on grade D in a regression of the tract denial rate on grade (A is the base), weighted by decided applications, errors clustered by county	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded D minus those in tracts graded A, with no adjustment	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 2.1 to 4.7	8,748 tracts	decided applications	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_gap_d_strict	2.8	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate of grade D tracts minus that of grade A tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded D minus those in tracts graded A, among tracts at least 90 percent covered by graded polygons	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 1.0 to 4.6	4,736 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_gap_dc	0.4	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate of grade D tracts minus that of grade C tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded D minus those in tracts graded C	applications decided in 2024	95% CI −0.6 to 1.5	6,095 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_min_group_tracts	30	tracts	the number of tracts a grade and group point needs to be drawn (a rule of this chapter)	a grade and applicant group point in the HOLC comparison	2024			none (definition)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_n_cells	1,008	city and tenth cells	count of distinct (city, tenth of the deprivation index) cells that carry a baseline in the third adjustment	graded tracts with a published home-purchase cell and a deprivation rank	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_n_cities	221	city and state pairs	count of distinct (city, state) pairs of the polygon covering most of each tract	graded tracts with a published home-purchase cell	HOLC maps drawn 1935 to 1940			none (full count)	Mapping Inequality (HOLC maps)
holc_n_graded	10,967	tracts	count of tracts whose area is at least half covered by polygons graded A to D	2020 census tracts covered at least half by graded HOLC polygons	HOLC maps drawn 1935 to 1940			none (full count)	Mapping Inequality (HOLC maps)
holc_n_published	8,748	tracts	count of graded tracts in the HMDA analysis	graded tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published home-purchase cell and a deprivation rank	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_rate_a	7.9%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded A on the 1930s HOLC maps	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 7.0% to 9.0%	650 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_rate_b	9.4%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded B on the 1930s HOLC maps	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 8.5% to 10.3%	2,003 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_rate_c	10.9%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded C on the 1930s HOLC maps	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 10.0% to 11.8%	4,008 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_rate_d	11.3%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts graded D on the 1930s HOLC maps	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 10.2% to 12.5%	2,087 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_rate_graded	10.3%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in graded tracts	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 9.5% to 11.1%	8,748 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_rate_other	8.9%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in tracts that are not graded	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 8.6% to 9.2%	67,230 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
holc_share_decided	7.3%	percent of decided applications	decided applications in graded tracts divided by decided applications in all tracts of the analysis	home-purchase applications that a covered lender originated or denied in 2024, first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, in tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published cell	applications decided in 2024			none (full counts)	HMDA mortgage lending
income_d1	$279 thousand	thousands of dollars, median applicant income in the tract	mean over tracts of the tract's median income reported on the applications, weighted by decided applications, county-cluster bootstrap interval	tracts in the least deprived tenth with a published home-purchase cell	applications in 2024	95% CI $266 thousand to $292 thousand	7,584 tracts	decided applications	HMDA mortgage lending
income_d10	$64 thousand	thousands of dollars, median applicant income in the tract	mean over tracts of the tract's median income reported on the applications, weighted by decided applications, county-cluster bootstrap interval	tracts in the most deprived tenth with a published home-purchase cell	applications in 2024	95% CI $63 thousand to $65 thousand	7,591 tracts	decided applications	HMDA mortgage lending
income_fifth_hi	$125 thousand	thousands of dollars, median applicant income in the tract	lowest tract median applicant income in the highest fifth	tracts in the highest fifth by median applicant income among tracts where both Black and white cells are published	applications in 2024		1,135 tracts	none (a boundary of the fifth)	HMDA mortgage lending
income_fifth_lo	$74 thousand	thousands of dollars, median applicant income in the tract	highest tract median applicant income in the lowest fifth	tracts in the lowest fifth by median applicant income among tracts where both Black and white cells are published	applications in 2024		1,124 tracts	none (a boundary of the fifth)	HMDA mortgage lending
loan_d1	$827 thousand	thousands of dollars, median loan amount in the tract	mean over tracts of the tract's median loan amount (HMDA rounds to the nearest $10,000), weighted by decided applications, county-cluster bootstrap interval	tracts in the least deprived tenth with a published home-purchase cell	applications in 2024	95% CI $774 thousand to $879 thousand	7,584 tracts	decided applications	HMDA mortgage lending
loan_d10	$162 thousand	thousands of dollars, median loan amount in the tract	mean over tracts of the tract's median loan amount (HMDA rounds to the nearest $10,000), weighted by decided applications, county-cluster bootstrap interval	tracts in the most deprived tenth with a published home-purchase cell	applications in 2024	95% CI $158 thousand to $167 thousand	7,591 tracts	decided applications	HMDA mortgage lending
median_decided	31	decided applications per tract	median over tracts of the originated plus denied applications	home-purchase applications that a covered lender originated or denied in 2024, first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, in tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published cell	applications decided in 2024		76,072 tracts	none (each tract counts once)	HMDA mortgage lending
min_point_tracts	100	tracts	the number of tracts a point needs to be drawn (a rule of this chapter)	a point on the lines by applicant group	2024			none (definition)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_cloud	2,000	tracts	size of a random sample drawn with a fixed seed	tracts with at least 30 decided home-purchase applications	2024			none (sample size)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_cloud_pool	39,697	tracts	count of tracts the sample is drawn from	tracts with a deprivation rank and at least 30 decided home-purchase applications	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_decided	3,097,390	applications	originated plus denied applications summed over the tracts	home-purchase applications that a covered lender originated or denied in 2024, first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, in tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published cell	applications decided in 2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_denied	278,451	applications	denied applications summed over the tracts	home-purchase applications that a covered lender originated or denied in 2024, first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, in tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published cell	applications decided in 2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_lt10	4,865	tracts	count of tracts with fewer than 10 decided applications (the staged floor counts applications of every action taken)	tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published home-purchase cell	applications decided in 2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_no_adi	94	tracts	count of tracts with no deprivation rank, left out of the figures that rank tracts	tracts with a published home-purchase cell	2024			none (full count)	Area Deprivation Index
n_pr_published	637	tracts	count of Puerto Rico tracts set aside	Puerto Rico tracts with a published home-purchase cell for all applicants	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_shared_asian	5,490	tracts	count of tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Asian and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	tracts of the 50 states and DC	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_shared_black	5,657	tracts	count of tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	tracts of the 50 states and DC	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_shared_hispanic	10,189	tracts	count of tracts where the cells for Hispanic (any race) and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	tracts of the 50 states and DC	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_tracts	76,072	tracts	count of tracts whose all-applicant home-purchase cell has 10 or more applications and a decided application	tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published home-purchase cell for all applicants	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_tracts_adi	75,978	tracts	count of tracts ranked into tenths	tracts with a published home-purchase cell and an Area Deprivation Index rank	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
n_withheld	5,999	tracts	count of tracts whose all-applicant cell has fewer than 10 applications and is set to missing when the file is staged	tracts of the 50 states and DC with a home-purchase row in the HMDA file	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
pr_decided	11,409	applications	originated plus denied applications summed over the tracts	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in Puerto Rico tracts with a published cell	applications decided in 2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
pr_rate	19.1%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), municipio-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in Puerto Rico tracts with a published cell, first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 18.3% to 20.0%	637 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
pr_shift_all	0.04	percentage points of denial rate	pooled denial rate with Puerto Rico tracts added minus the rate without them	home-purchase applications decided in 2024, all tracts with a published cell, with Puerto Rico minus without	applications decided in 2024			none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
pr_top_share	69%	percent of ranked Puerto Rico tracts	share at or above the national rank where the most deprived tenth of the 50-state and DC sample starts	Puerto Rico tracts with a published cell and a deprivation rank	ADI 2023			none (each tract counts once)	Area Deprivation Index
rate_all	9.0%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications that a covered lender originated or denied in 2024, first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, in tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published cell	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 8.7% to 9.3%	76,072 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_all_ge30	8.5%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications that a covered lender originated or denied in 2024, first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, in tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published cell, tracts with at least 30 decided applications	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 8.2% to 8.8%	39,714 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_asian	8.9%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Asian applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in tracts where the cell for the group is published (10 or more applications)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 8.4% to 9.4%	7,532 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_asian_d1	7.8%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Asian applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tract tenth numbered 1 by Area Deprivation Index (1 = least deprived) where the cell is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 7.3% to 8.7%	2,241 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_asian_d8	12.9%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Asian applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tract tenth numbered 8 by Area Deprivation Index (1 = least deprived) where the cell is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 11.0% to 14.5%	103 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_black	17.0%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in tracts where the cell for the group is published (10 or more applications)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 16.4% to 17.7%	8,232 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_black_d10	20.3%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tract tenth numbered 10 by Area Deprivation Index (1 = least deprived) where the cell is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 19.0% to 21.6%	1,081 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_black_d3	14.6%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tract tenth numbered 3 by Area Deprivation Index (1 = least deprived) where the cell is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 13.8% to 15.6%	633 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_cashout	35.8%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	cash-out refinance applications that a covered lender originated or denied in 2024, first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, in tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published cell	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 35.3% to 36.4%	46,525 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_d1	7.8%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in the least deprived tenth of tracts by Area Deprivation Index national rank (tenths hold equal numbers of tracts)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 7.2% to 8.4%	7,584 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_d10	13.8%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in the most deprived tenth of tracts by Area Deprivation Index national rank (tenths hold equal numbers of tracts)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 13.3% to 14.3%	7,591 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_d10_with_pr	14.1%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by originated or denied applications, summed over those tracts (a sensitivity, not a chapter estimate)	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in the most deprived tenth of the 50-state and DC tracts plus Puerto Rico tracts at or above the rank where that tenth starts	applications decided in 2024			none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_d2	7.7%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in the second least deprived tenth of tracts by Area Deprivation Index national rank (tenths hold equal numbers of tracts)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 7.2% to 8.2%	7,686 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_d3	7.6%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in the third least deprived tenth of tracts by Area Deprivation Index national rank (tenths hold equal numbers of tracts)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 7.3% to 8.0%	7,429 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_hispanic	13.1%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	Hispanic (any race) applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in tracts where the cell for the group is published (10 or more applications)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 12.4% to 13.9%	16,060 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_hispanic_d10	14.2%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	Hispanic (any race) applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tract tenth numbered 10 by Area Deprivation Index (1 = least deprived) where the cell is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 12.9% to 15.7%	1,045 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_hispanic_d3	11.8%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	Hispanic (any race) applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tract tenth numbered 3 by Area Deprivation Index (1 = least deprived) where the cell is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 11.1% to 12.6%	1,847 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_refi	20.7%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	refinance applications that a covered lender originated or denied in 2024, first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, in tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published cell	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 20.2% to 21.2%	36,779 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_white	6.5%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic white applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in tracts where the cell for the group is published (10 or more applications)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 6.3% to 6.6%	56,664 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_white_d1	6.7%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic white applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tract tenth numbered 1 by Area Deprivation Index (1 = least deprived) where the cell is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 6.0% to 7.5%	4,805 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_white_d10	10.4%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic white applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tract tenth numbered 10 by Area Deprivation Index (1 = least deprived) where the cell is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 10.1% to 10.8%	4,227 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
rate_white_d3	5.4%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic white applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tract tenth numbered 3 by Area Deprivation Index (1 = least deprived) where the cell is published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 5.2% to 5.6%	5,868 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
ratio_asian	1.6	ratio of denial rates	pooled denial rate of the group divided by that of non-Hispanic white applicants over the same tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Asian applicants over non-Hispanic white applicants, applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Asian and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 1.5 to 1.7	5,490 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
ratio_black	2.6	ratio of denial rates	pooled denial rate of the group divided by that of non-Hispanic white applicants over the same tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black applicants over non-Hispanic white applicants, applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 2.5 to 2.7	5,657 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
ratio_d10	2.0	ratio of denial rates	pooled denial rate of Black applicants divided by that of white applicants over the same tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black over non-Hispanic white applicants decided in 2024, in the most deprived tenth of tracts where both cells are published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 1.8 to 2.3	395 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
ratio_d5	2.8	ratio of denial rates	pooled denial rate of Black applicants divided by that of white applicants over the same tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black over non-Hispanic white applicants decided in 2024, in the fifth tenth of tracts by Area Deprivation Index where both cells are published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 2.6 to 3.0	809 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
ratio_hispanic	2.0	ratio of denial rates	pooled denial rate of the group divided by that of non-Hispanic white applicants over the same tracts, county-cluster bootstrap interval	Hispanic (any race) applicants over non-Hispanic white applicants, applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for Hispanic (any race) and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 1.9 to 2.1	10,189 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
same_asian	8.9%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Asian applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Asian and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 8.5% to 9.4%	5,490 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
same_black	16.2%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic Black applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 15.7% to 16.8%	5,657 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
same_hispanic	12.8%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	Hispanic (any race) applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for Hispanic (any race) and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 12.2% to 13.5%	10,189 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
same_white_vs_asian	5.7%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic white applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Asian and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 5.4% to 6.0%	5,490 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
same_white_vs_black	6.2%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic white applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 6.0% to 6.5%	5,657 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
same_white_vs_hispanic	6.5%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	non-Hispanic white applicants whose home-purchase application was decided in 2024, in the tracts where the cells for Hispanic (any race) and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 6.2% to 6.8%	10,189 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending
share_black_lt10	27%	percent of tracts that hold both cells	share of those tracts with fewer than 10 decided applications from non-Hispanic Black applicants	tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published	applications decided in 2024		5,657 tracts	none (each tract counts once)	HMDA mortgage lending
share_shared_black	7.4%	percent of tracts	tracts where the cells for non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white applicants are both published, divided by tracts with a published all-applicant cell	home-purchase applications that a covered lender originated or denied in 2024, first-lien loans on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, in tracts of the 50 states and DC with a published cell	applications decided in 2024		76,072 tracts	none (each tract counts once)	HMDA mortgage lending
suppress_floor	10	applications	the number of applications, of every action taken, below which the staging step withholds the cell (a rule of this book, not an HMDA flag)	a tract and loan purpose cell of the staged HMDA file	2024			none (definition)	HMDA mortgage lending
suppress_max	9	applications	the largest number of applications a withheld cell can hold (one below the floor)	a withheld tract and loan purpose cell of the staged HMDA file	2024			none (definition)	HMDA mortgage lending
tracts_black_cashout	2,938	tracts	count of tracts with a published cash-out refinance cell for non-Hispanic Black applicants (10 or more applications)	tracts of the 50 states and DC	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
tracts_black_purchase	8,232	tracts	count of tracts with a published home-purchase cell for non-Hispanic Black applicants (10 or more applications)	tracts of the 50 states and DC	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
tracts_black_refi	1,155	tracts	count of tracts with a published refinance cell for non-Hispanic Black applicants (10 or more applications)	tracts of the 50 states and DC	2024			none (full count)	HMDA mortgage lending
us_denial	9.0%	percent of decided applications denied	denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied, summed over the tracts (a pooled rate), county-cluster bootstrap interval	home-purchase applications decided in 2024 in all tracts with an Area Deprivation Index national rank (all ten tenths pooled)	applications decided in 2024	95% CI 8.7% to 9.3%	75,978 tracts	none (counts of decided applications, pooled over tracts)	HMDA mortgage lending

Definitions

Census tract: A small area drawn by the Census Bureau to stand in for a neighborhood. Boundaries are redrawn after each decennial census.
Bootstrap interval: A range for an estimate found by recomputing it on many random resamples of the data and reading the range from the results. It shows how much the estimate would vary from sample to sample.
Suppression: The withholding of a number because the count behind it is too small to publish without risking the identification of a person. A suppressed value is missing, not zero.
Area Deprivation Index (ADI): A score that ranks neighborhoods by income, education, employment and housing conditions drawn from the American Community Survey. In this book a higher national percentile means a more deprived neighborhood.
HOLC grade: A letter from A to D that the Home Owners' Loan Corporation gave neighborhoods on its 1930s maps, with A labeled best and D hazardous. The maps are known as redlining maps.
Ecological inference: Drawing conclusions about individuals from data about places or groups. A pattern across counties need not hold for the people inside them.

Methods

This chapter compares denial rates on home-purchase applications decided in 2024 across census tracts, for all applicants and for four applicant groups. The file covers lenders above the HMDA reporting thresholds and has no loan type; withdrawn and incomplete applications are not in the rate, and a tract, purpose and group cell with fewer than 10 applications is missing, so a comparison between groups covers only tracts where both cells are published. The HOLC grades come from maps drawn in the 1930s and are compared with 2024 lending, and the Area Deprivation Index that ranks tracts is built partly from income and housing costs.

Which applications are included

The staged HMDA file holds 2024 first-lien applications on site-built homes with up to four units that applicants intend as a principal residence, from lenders above the HMDA reporting thresholds, aggregated to 2020 census tracts by loan purpose (home purchase, refinance, cash-out refinance) and by applicant group (all, and the applicant's reported non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic of any race and non-Hispanic Asian).

The chapter uses home-purchase applications in the 50 states and DC. Puerto Rico is left out. Loan type is not in the file.

Figure explained here: Figure 1

How the denial rate is defined

The denial rate is denied applications divided by applications that were originated or denied (decided), as a percent, summed over tracts: a pooled rate, never an average of tract rates.

Applications that were withdrawn or left incomplete, loans approved but not accepted and purchased loans are not in the rate.

Cells with few applications are missing

When the file was staged, a tract, purpose and group cell with fewer than 10 applications (of every action taken) was set to missing; a missing cell leaves both the numerator and the denominator and is never imputed or back-calculated.

How tracts are grouped

Tenths hold near-equal numbers of tracts ranked by the Area Deprivation Index national rank (tracts tied on the rank stay together). The fifths of tract applicant income hold near-equal numbers of tracts that have published cells for Black and white applicants.

Figures explained here: Figure 2 and Figure 5

HOLC grades and the Cook County map

Graded polygons (A to D) are intersected with 2020 tracts in an equal-area projection; a tract with at least 50 percent of its area graded takes the grade covering most of it and the city of the polygon covering most of it (the rule of the chapter on home value, income and redlining); the grade D minus grade A gap is also shown for a stricter rule of 90 percent coverage.

Grade comparisons are weighted regressions of the tract denial rate on grade, weighted by decided applications, with errors clustered by county, with no baseline, with a separate baseline for each city, and with a separate baseline for each city and tenth cell.

On the Cook County map, tracts with at least 20 decided applications are shaded; the tooltip interval is a Wilson interval on the counts.

Figures explained here: Figure 6 and Figure 7

Intervals, trends and the tract sample

Intervals are percentile intervals from a bootstrap that resamples whole counties with replacement (2,000 replicates, seed 12345, the same draws for every estimate so a difference gets one interval).

The trend of the same-tract gap is the least-squares slope of the gaps of the tenths (or fifths) on their number, recomputed in every bootstrap draw.

The scatter shows a random sample of 2,000 tracts with at least 30 decided applications, drawn with seed 12345.

Figures explained here: Figure 4 and Figure 2

Four rankings of the same places

The comparison follows the book's ranking switch rule, fixed on October 28, 2026 before any of these gradients was computed. The main gradient of the chapter is recomputed under four rankings of the same places, with the outcome, period, weights, bins and intervals unchanged: the published ADI; a standardized index that applies the ADI's coefficients to its measures after standardizing each one across tracts; median household income; and the share of adults 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more. The three alternatives come from ACS tract estimates for 2019 to 2023, the period of the ADI.

All four rankings use the same places, the 71,169 tracts that have the outcome and all four rankings, so the ADI panel can differ slightly from the chapter's main figure. Tracts enter only if they have every input of the standardized index, which leaves out tracts without a median rent, home value or mortgage cost.

A pattern counts as changed when the worse end switches sides, when the two ends differ under one ranking and not the other, or when the rank correlation of bin order and bin mean falls on the other side of 0.9 and moves by at least 0.1.

Figure explained here: Figure 8

What these data cannot show

References

Munnell, Alicia H.; Tootell, Geoffrey M. B.; Browne, Lynn E.; McEneaney, James (1996). Mortgage Lending in Boston: Interpreting HMDA Data. American Economic Review 86(1): 25-53.
Hanson, Andrew; Hawley, Zackary; Martin, Hal; Liu, Bo (2016). Discrimination in Mortgage Lending: Evidence from a Correspondence Experiment. Journal of Urban Economics 92: 48-65. doi:10.1016/j.jue.2015.12.004
Nelson, Robert K.; Winling, LaDale; Marciano, Richard; Connolly, Nathan; et al. (2023). Mapping Inequality: Redlining in New Deal America. American Panorama, ed. Robert K. Nelson and Edward L. Ayers, Digital Scholarship Lab, University of Richmond. dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/

Provenance

Pipeline version: 0.1.0
Build script: book2/chapters/mortgage-denials/build.py (sha256 814f4cc85cbefae10bb7bd60cd4c66a5101602b66203772be914f2c965ecad4c)
Built on: 2026-10-09
Site commit: c2b1ff3309cb4a10833f884da91ac0057a66ad0a

Inputs

File	Size (bytes)	SHA-256, first 1 MB	SHA-256, last 1 MB
book2/chapters/mortgage-denials/hmda.py	13,482	4d7e4a2c3720decb65cc28555be2bd7095512d5e30dce0ff407d07f9dcf37b42	4d7e4a2c3720decb65cc28555be2bd7095512d5e30dce0ff407d07f9dcf37b42
book2/chapters/mortgage-denials/holc_tracts.py	2,291	1b366aa0e9a51cfb681e206aa807e438133ed778a1cdf6b787e3ffcb178a014c	1b366aa0e9a51cfb681e206aa807e438133ed778a1cdf6b787e3ffcb178a014c
book2/chapters/mortgage-denials/redlining.py	9,307	28a3d08f1c6ac598be472b24f7a0ed7511a41240bfddbf902aceb16bf3316595	28a3d08f1c6ac598be472b24f7a0ed7511a41240bfddbf902aceb16bf3316595
data/analytic/tract_atlas.parquet	39,659,925	29d5e4d943552d54aeb6ba92aadc939d9bd15bdea553c78357dbd516757be627	1e10d1ecf722340f23ee2212d4999a90250f85b65fa89b39e32db06d9472e22e
data/geo/dim_geo.parquet	1,180,921	29d5e4d943552d54aeb6ba92aadc939d9bd15bdea553c78357dbd516757be627	e58c8c488df54ab3187f5461f179322afdc49c9bd2315404003fe1272eea32c3
data/geo/holc_areas_2023.parquet	4,084,019	6d293647278dc82053c0ab89a192836f0763e73aff77785f3f06ad4214102600	37dc09e2ca32f1f9a001d07433b85faf4bd0a31ea584c16b62654b6556084be4
data/geo/tracts_2020.parquet	619,858,391	f4f05c8c7a63d1785ec2aad283de3f6fa839b6c437f13a1b96cea31d3344bf0f	7b3811247c6b3e322954f24a4a2384af52aef6ed8688f8dbdb0407d21ef80a59
data/raw/acs/deprivation_components_2019_2023/tract.parquet	13,197,793	5545cde2cbe96a8b56e468d65388248a241aa6bd300d3c9e325d08d3f86b11da	5c8ec454d066988b0f1a01aaa6ed34ebfc05d162e01cf9c6bb01f9198cbaff12
data/staged/adi/adi_atlas_tract2020_2023.parquet	798,078	5e409bc212ff871def780fa27b4cf8b616d9da420b2b9f6455517eddcd8c1a95	5e409bc212ff871def780fa27b4cf8b616d9da420b2b9f6455517eddcd8c1a95
data/staged/housing/hmda_tract_2024.parquet	3,512,343	b1d15b4f05f469ff89ebdfef102f048e35c92e48b035ccc53d89ec44876cecf9	13a15bb3dd0d47f2b9273757967d51a6a624259c0603c7a82fd7b4fba28d856f
data/staged/ses/acs5_tract2020_2019_2023.parquet	7,232,424	5fe6f730a35225f14d5d8abfc6b9bce58b52e545f309a7eac74f1dae74d7a31c	7b4a2475b3852d3f91804716a04566ef8ceadacec2be9fb85f5eb642078efac6
data/staged/svi/svi_tract2020_2022.parquet	17,740,415	cb3860d8edc2aaf1f2a02211a58f7a0b80457eb6ad9a37b5ec8abb2d5da9da10	e371a4a696d5bed05d54ad7c5b6ca2504508805b847ec415c2322be7f66ec2b2

Outputs

File	SHA-256
facts.json	753a34074702cd60ad13949eee9ff31cd4f2a6b4b4433b30561ff0352bff0f01
figures/alt_rankings.json	773da62209fd79716ba73b2fab4d60c0e69d89cc89b3e144c91194c4f7af73ec
figures/cook_denial_map.json	227f66edcb44254183f05ac1eb7e4b9f09acb416cfc401d10d9799d727af55ce
figures/denial_by_group_and_deprivation.json	22b4bfd20471b4129942b55ba314102d4fbaa1780069fd2da556b550ec1f32c0
figures/denial_by_holc_grade.json	4a4de27f7011fc020d03e7c18b443dab14e2bfbc8bd496154d83cfe9bce91b97
figures/denial_by_loan_purpose.json	fc4e94ab111073a6835fe9050f85c88980492e1fca37097fedfdd3d9c79216db
figures/denial_vs_deprivation.json	1bea4e523acf3849a3eb019195ce80b6b66a41af203a003863112da81f25fec0
figures/gap_by_deprivation_and_income.json	11a3d128277615ae2291bfb4722f3c5934a1fccafe9018000c6c90a6dd101c17
figures/same_tract_gaps.json	16d7c67b84cb0a3164d1b098b88d1c60ffa23c8fc086316331266a471dac4379
meta.json	6eeaf4dc3073b8de57a00fa35f6e2d46a24c1133219f34bfb5d685ef257d99f0
public/data/mortgage-denials/cook_denial_map.json	467118e3283844e371fbfa09dda1644b830e16d7e9353fd25d9b3ce068ec638c
public/data/mortgage-denials/denial_vs_deprivation_tracts.json	66c0543541b745ce9ac42c3b19fc29de5cb4c02a27cbd9b768c909f195bc3c4d
refs.json	49de2f8eefdbb181acdeede03c4e8edd6cb7ef3fab1fee54f9b540cd3c046406

Machine formats

Report (Markdown): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/mortgage-denials/report.md
Every estimate (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/facts.json
Table 1, figure "denial_by_loan_purpose" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/denial_by_loan_purpose.json
Table 2, figure "denial_vs_deprivation" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/denial_vs_deprivation.json
Table 3, figure "denial_by_group_and_deprivation" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/denial_by_group_and_deprivation.json
Table 4, figure "same_tract_gaps" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/same_tract_gaps.json
Table 5, figure "gap_by_deprivation_and_income" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/gap_by_deprivation_and_income.json
Table 6, figure "denial_by_holc_grade" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/denial_by_holc_grade.json
Table 7, figure "cook_denial_map" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/cook_denial_map.json
Table 8, figure "alt_rankings" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/mortgage-denials/figures/alt_rankings.json
Payload of "denial_vs_deprivation" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/mortgage-denials/denial_vs_deprivation_tracts.json
Payload of "cook_denial_map" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/mortgage-denials/cook_denial_map.json
Index of every report: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/llms.txt; all reports in one file: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/llms-full.txt