{
  "alt": "Dot plot with one row per state, sorted from the shallowest slope at the top to the steepest at the bottom, each with an interval. Every dot is to the right of the zero line, and the interval crosses zero in only a few states, among them Kentucky and Wyoming, at the top.",
  "caption": "Every dot lies to the right of zero. The 95% interval, from robust standard errors with t intervals, clears zero in {fact:slope_sig} of the {fact:slope_states} states and includes zero in Kentucky, Wyoming, Utah, New Hampshire and North Dakota. Each dot is the slope from a weighted regression across the counties of one state, and states run from the shallowest slope at the top to the steepest.",
  "data": [
    {
      "conf_high": 0.739,
      "conf_low": -0.083,
      "n": 120,
      "slope": 0.328,
      "state": "Kentucky"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.014,
      "conf_low": 0.015,
      "n": 92,
      "slope": 0.514,
      "state": "Nebraska"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.526,
      "conf_low": -0.472,
      "n": 23,
      "slope": 0.527,
      "state": "Wyoming"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.627,
      "conf_low": -0.23,
      "n": 29,
      "slope": 0.699,
      "state": "Utah"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.829,
      "conf_low": -0.048,
      "n": 10,
      "slope": 0.891,
      "state": "New Hampshire"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.443,
      "conf_low": 0.372,
      "n": 77,
      "slope": 0.907,
      "state": "Oklahoma"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.68,
      "conf_low": 0.215,
      "n": 33,
      "slope": 0.948,
      "state": "New Mexico"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.696,
      "conf_low": -0.705,
      "n": 53,
      "slope": 0.996,
      "state": "North Dakota"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.468,
      "conf_low": 0.535,
      "n": 55,
      "slope": 1.002,
      "state": "West Virginia"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.495,
      "conf_low": 0.8,
      "n": 15,
      "slope": 1.148,
      "state": "Arizona"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.724,
      "conf_low": 0.669,
      "n": 115,
      "slope": 1.197,
      "state": "Missouri"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.856,
      "conf_low": 0.541,
      "n": 44,
      "slope": 1.198,
      "state": "Idaho"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.586,
      "conf_low": 1.019,
      "n": 62,
      "slope": 1.302,
      "state": "New York"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.631,
      "conf_low": 0.082,
      "n": 17,
      "slope": 1.357,
      "state": "Nevada"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.811,
      "conf_low": 0.912,
      "n": 87,
      "slope": 1.361,
      "state": "Minnesota"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.904,
      "conf_low": 0.834,
      "n": 64,
      "slope": 1.369,
      "state": "Colorado"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.778,
      "conf_low": 1.018,
      "n": 252,
      "slope": 1.398,
      "state": "Texas"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.859,
      "conf_low": 0.955,
      "n": 16,
      "slope": 1.407,
      "state": "Maine"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.285,
      "conf_low": 0.546,
      "n": 95,
      "slope": 1.415,
      "state": "Tennessee"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.891,
      "conf_low": 0.987,
      "n": 64,
      "slope": 1.439,
      "state": "Louisiana"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.895,
      "conf_low": 1.212,
      "n": 99,
      "slope": 1.554,
      "state": "Iowa"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.925,
      "conf_low": 1.189,
      "n": 67,
      "slope": 1.557,
      "state": "Alabama"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 1.927,
      "conf_low": 1.221,
      "n": 100,
      "slope": 1.574,
      "state": "North Carolina"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.111,
      "conf_low": 1.155,
      "n": 67,
      "slope": 1.633,
      "state": "Florida"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.423,
      "conf_low": 0.856,
      "n": 14,
      "slope": 1.64,
      "state": "Vermont"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.234,
      "conf_low": 1.138,
      "n": 102,
      "slope": 1.686,
      "state": "Illinois"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.194,
      "conf_low": 1.216,
      "n": 36,
      "slope": 1.705,
      "state": "Oregon"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.13,
      "conf_low": 1.364,
      "n": 88,
      "slope": 1.747,
      "state": "Ohio"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.014,
      "conf_low": 1.487,
      "n": 58,
      "slope": 1.75,
      "state": "California"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.184,
      "conf_low": 1.332,
      "n": 159,
      "slope": 1.758,
      "state": "Georgia"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.166,
      "conf_low": 1.355,
      "n": 46,
      "slope": 1.761,
      "state": "South Carolina"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.174,
      "conf_low": 1.454,
      "n": 75,
      "slope": 1.814,
      "state": "Arkansas"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.277,
      "conf_low": 1.465,
      "n": 92,
      "slope": 1.871,
      "state": "Indiana"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 3.277,
      "conf_low": 0.578,
      "n": 56,
      "slope": 1.928,
      "state": "Montana"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.508,
      "conf_low": 1.357,
      "n": 39,
      "slope": 1.932,
      "state": "Washington"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.686,
      "conf_low": 1.319,
      "n": 105,
      "slope": 2.002,
      "state": "Kansas"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.407,
      "conf_low": 1.649,
      "n": 81,
      "slope": 2.028,
      "state": "Mississippi"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 3.284,
      "conf_low": 1.073,
      "n": 67,
      "slope": 2.179,
      "state": "Pennsylvania"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.731,
      "conf_low": 1.636,
      "n": 14,
      "slope": 2.183,
      "state": "Massachusetts"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.923,
      "conf_low": 1.524,
      "n": 24,
      "slope": 2.223,
      "state": "Maryland"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 2.926,
      "conf_low": 1.627,
      "n": 82,
      "slope": 2.277,
      "state": "Michigan"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 3.016,
      "conf_low": 1.958,
      "n": 21,
      "slope": 2.487,
      "state": "New Jersey"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 3.715,
      "conf_low": 1.988,
      "n": 72,
      "slope": 2.851,
      "state": "Wisconsin"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 4.33,
      "conf_low": 1.573,
      "n": 65,
      "slope": 2.952,
      "state": "South Dakota"
    },
    {
      "conf_high": 4.875,
      "conf_low": 1.656,
      "n": 27,
      "slope": 3.265,
      "state": "Alaska"
    }
  ],
  "id": "income_slopes_by_state",
  "notes": [
    "Each state is fitted on its own counties, weighted by the tests counted. Standard errors are robust to unequal variances, with t intervals. States with fewer counties than the minimum (Delaware, Hawaii, Rhode Island, Connecticut) are not fitted, and Virginia and DC have no average.",
    "With heteroskedasticity-consistent standard errors and normal intervals the interval clears zero in {fact:slope_sig_hc3} states. Using the Census Bureau's 2019 income estimate in place of the 2022 one gives the same pattern, except that Wyoming's slope, close to zero in both, turns slightly negative.",
    "A slope across counties describes places. It does not say what a change in a county's income would do to its students."
  ],
  "source": "Stanford Education Data Archive 6.0, 2009-2019, and County Health Rankings 2024 (Census SAIPE median household income for 2022); weighted by tests counted, modeled estimates",
  "spec": {
    "hi": "conf_high",
    "lo": "conf_low",
    "n": "n",
    "reference": 0,
    "referenceLabel": "No slope",
    "sort": "asc",
    "x": "slope",
    "xDomain": [
      -1,
      5.5
    ],
    "xFormat": {
      "digits": 1,
      "signed": true
    },
    "xLabel": "Grade levels of county average achievement per doubling of median household income",
    "y": "state"
  },
  "subtitle": "Within-state slope of the county average of math and reading on county median household income (grade levels per doubling of income), states with {fact:min_counties_state} or more counties",
  "title": "The slope of county average achievement on county median income is positive in {fact:slope_pos} of {fact:slope_states} states, with a 95% interval above zero in {fact:slope_sig}",
  "type": "dot",
  "width": "wide"
}