{
  "alt": "Three tabs. The first is five panels of dots by HOLC grade A to D: life expectancy, adult income rank, homeownership and household income fall from grade A to grade D, and the deprivation index is flat across grades B to D. The second shows the distribution of life expectancy by grade with overlapping interquartile ranges. The third is a dumbbell chart of the grade A and grade D means for each city, with grade A to the right in every city.",
  "caption": "On four of the five measures the dots step down from grade A to grade D, the deprivation index is close to the same value for grades B, C and D, the distributions of life expectancy overlap across grades, and the grade A dot lies to the right of the grade D dot in every city. The tabs plot population-weighted means with 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties, the interquartile range of tract life expectancy, and the two grades' means for each city with enough tracts.",
  "data": [],
  "id": "holc_grade_outcomes",
  "notes": [
    "A tract enters when graded polygons (A to D) cover at least {fact:holc_cover_min} of its area and takes the grade that covers the most of it. The comparison is descriptive: the grades followed the neighborhoods' housing, incomes and the race and national origin of residents, so differences today do not isolate the effect of the maps.",
    "The tracts are in {fact:holc_n_cities} HOLC cities and city areas, matched by overlay. With a stricter rule that graded polygons cover at least {fact:holc_cover_strict} of a tract the life-expectancy gap between grades A and D is {fact:holc_le_gap_90} years.",
    "Life expectancy is USALEEP for deaths in 2010 to 2015, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts, with institutional tracts left out. The adult income rank is the Opportunity Atlas rank of children born 1978 to 1983 to parents at the 25th income percentile, interpolated from 2010 to 2020 tracts by area. Tract values are weighted by ACS 2019-2023 population."
  ],
  "source": "Mapping Inequality HOLC maps (1935-1940) overlaid on 2020 tracts; USALEEP 2010-2015, Opportunity Atlas (1978-1983 birth cohorts), ACS 2019-2023 and ADI 2023; population-weighted, modeled estimates",
  "spec": {
    "panels": [
      {
        "figure": {
          "alt": "Five panels of dots for HOLC grades A to D. In the panels for life expectancy, adult income rank, homeownership and household income the dot for grade A is far to the right of the dot for grade D with grades B and C between them. In the panel for the deprivation index the dots for grades B, C and D sit at nearly the same value.",
          "caption": "Life expectancy, adult income rank, homeownership and household income fall at each step from grade A to grade D, and the intervals for grades A and D do not overlap in any of those panels. The deprivation index is close to the same value for grades B, C and D, and the interval for grade A overlaps theirs.",
          "data": [
            {
              "conf_high": 81.57,
              "conf_low": 80.13,
              "grade": "A",
              "label": "Grade A",
              "mean": 80.93,
              "n": 629,
              "outcome": "Life expectancy at birth (years)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 79.81,
              "conf_low": 78.3,
              "grade": "B",
              "label": "Grade B",
              "mean": 79.1,
              "n": 2133,
              "outcome": "Life expectancy at birth (years)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 78.74,
              "conf_low": 76.88,
              "grade": "C",
              "label": "Grade C",
              "mean": 77.95,
              "n": 4710,
              "outcome": "Life expectancy at birth (years)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 77.79,
              "conf_low": 75.5,
              "grade": "D",
              "label": "Grade D",
              "mean": 76.84,
              "n": 2671,
              "outcome": "Life expectancy at birth (years)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 47.15,
              "conf_low": 45.26,
              "grade": "A",
              "label": "Grade A",
              "mean": 46.26,
              "n": 672,
              "outcome": "Adult income rank of children from low-income families (percentile)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 44.14,
              "conf_low": 41.99,
              "grade": "B",
              "label": "Grade B",
              "mean": 43.11,
              "n": 2245,
              "outcome": "Adult income rank of children from low-income families (percentile)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 42.56,
              "conf_low": 39.57,
              "grade": "C",
              "label": "Grade C",
              "mean": 41.2,
              "n": 5051,
              "outcome": "Adult income rank of children from low-income families (percentile)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 39.15,
              "conf_low": 36.27,
              "grade": "D",
              "label": "Grade D",
              "mean": 37.93,
              "n": 2974,
              "outcome": "Adult income rank of children from low-income families (percentile)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 70.58,
              "conf_low": 64.96,
              "grade": "A",
              "label": "Grade A",
              "mean": 67.81,
              "n": 672,
              "outcome": "Homeownership rate (% of households)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 56.7,
              "conf_low": 48.44,
              "grade": "B",
              "label": "Grade B",
              "mean": 52.55,
              "n": 2246,
              "outcome": "Homeownership rate (% of households)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 47.75,
              "conf_low": 39.33,
              "grade": "C",
              "label": "Grade C",
              "mean": 43.45,
              "n": 5052,
              "outcome": "Homeownership rate (% of households)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 39.73,
              "conf_low": 31.66,
              "grade": "D",
              "label": "Grade D",
              "mean": 35.32,
              "n": 2973,
              "outcome": "Homeownership rate (% of households)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 138.4,
              "conf_low": 114.93,
              "grade": "A",
              "label": "Grade A",
              "mean": 127.44,
              "n": 669,
              "outcome": "Median household income (thousands of dollars)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 96.19,
              "conf_low": 82.24,
              "grade": "B",
              "label": "Grade B",
              "mean": 89.54,
              "n": 2236,
              "outcome": "Median household income (thousands of dollars)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 78.97,
              "conf_low": 68.8,
              "grade": "C",
              "label": "Grade C",
              "mean": 74.16,
              "n": 5015,
              "outcome": "Median household income (thousands of dollars)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 78.02,
              "conf_low": 62.77,
              "grade": "D",
              "label": "Grade D",
              "mean": 71.12,
              "n": 2920,
              "outcome": "Median household income (thousands of dollars)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 38.43,
              "conf_low": 25.53,
              "grade": "A",
              "label": "Grade A",
              "mean": 31.55,
              "n": 670,
              "outcome": "Area Deprivation Index (national percentile, 100 = most deprived)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 49.21,
              "conf_low": 33.19,
              "grade": "B",
              "label": "Grade B",
              "mean": 40.78,
              "n": 2241,
              "outcome": "Area Deprivation Index (national percentile, 100 = most deprived)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 52.72,
              "conf_low": 33.35,
              "grade": "C",
              "label": "Grade C",
              "mean": 41.77,
              "n": 5040,
              "outcome": "Area Deprivation Index (national percentile, 100 = most deprived)"
            },
            {
              "conf_high": 52.98,
              "conf_low": 31.56,
              "grade": "D",
              "label": "Grade D",
              "mean": 40.64,
              "n": 2953,
              "outcome": "Area Deprivation Index (national percentile, 100 = most deprived)"
            }
          ],
          "id": "holc_means",
          "spec": {
            "colors": {
              "A": "holcA",
              "B": "holcB",
              "C": "holcC",
              "D": "holcD"
            },
            "facet": "outcome",
            "facetColumns": 3,
            "group": "grade",
            "hi": "conf_high",
            "legend": false,
            "lo": "conf_low",
            "n": "n",
            "sort": "data",
            "valueLabels": true,
            "x": "mean",
            "xDomain": [
              0,
              100
            ],
            "xDomains": {
              "Adult income rank of children from low-income families (percentile)": [
                30,
                52
              ],
              "Area Deprivation Index (national percentile, 100 = most deprived)": [
                20,
                60
              ],
              "Homeownership rate (% of households)": [
                20,
                80
              ],
              "Life expectancy at birth (years)": [
                72,
                86
              ],
              "Median household income (thousands of dollars)": [
                50,
                150
              ]
            },
            "xFormat": {
              "digits": 1
            },
            "xLabel": "Mean of tract values (units in each panel title)",
            "y": "label"
          },
          "subtitle": "Population-weighted mean of tract values by HOLC grade, each panel in its own units",
          "title": "Life expectancy, adult income rank, homeownership and household income are lower in each step from grade A to grade D",
          "type": "dot"
        },
        "label": "Means by grade"
      },
      {
        "figure": {
          "alt": "Dot plot of life expectancy for four HOLC grades with a horizontal bar for the interquartile range. The dots move left from grade A to grade D, and the bars overlap between every pair of grades, including grade A and grade D.",
          "caption": "Each dot is the mean and each bar spans the 25th to the 75th percentile of tract life expectancy; the bars for neighboring grades overlap, and the bar for grade A overlaps the bar for grade D. The bars show spread across tracts, not an interval for the mean.",
          "data": [
            {
              "grade": "A",
              "label": "Grade A",
              "mean": 80.93,
              "n": 629,
              "q25": 78.6,
              "q75": 83.6
            },
            {
              "grade": "B",
              "label": "Grade B",
              "mean": 79.1,
              "n": 2133,
              "q25": 76.38,
              "q75": 82
            },
            {
              "grade": "C",
              "label": "Grade C",
              "mean": 77.95,
              "n": 4710,
              "q25": 75.3,
              "q75": 81.1
            },
            {
              "grade": "D",
              "label": "Grade D",
              "mean": 76.84,
              "n": 2671,
              "q25": 73.6,
              "q75": 80.2
            }
          ],
          "id": "holc_spread",
          "spec": {
            "colors": {
              "A": "holcA",
              "B": "holcB",
              "C": "holcC",
              "D": "holcD"
            },
            "group": "grade",
            "hi": "q75",
            "legend": false,
            "lo": "q25",
            "n": "n",
            "sort": "data",
            "valueLabels": true,
            "x": "mean",
            "xDomain": [
              70,
              88
            ],
            "xFormat": {
              "digits": 1
            },
            "xLabel": "Life expectancy at birth (years)",
            "y": "label"
          },
          "subtitle": "Population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy at birth with the interquartile range (the 25th to the 75th percentile of tracts, weighted by tract population) by HOLC grade, deaths in 2010 to 2015",
          "title": "The distributions of tract life expectancy overlap heavily across grades, and the grade shifts the middle",
          "type": "dot"
        },
        "label": "Spread of life expectancy"
      },
      {
        "figure": {
          "alt": "Dumbbell chart with one row for each of {fact:holc_city_n} cities, joining a grade D dot to a grade A dot. The grade A dot is to the right in every row, and rows are ordered from the widest gap at the top to the narrowest at the bottom.",
          "caption": "Every grade A dot lies to the right of its grade D dot, and the last column gives the gap, which runs from {fact:holc_city_p5} to {fact:holc_city_p95} years between the 5th and 95th percentiles of cities. Cities need at least {fact:holc_min_a} grade A and {fact:holc_min_d} grade D tracts with a life expectancy, and intervals resample the tracts of each grade within a city.",
          "data": [
            {
              "city": "San Diego, CA",
              "hi_a": 84.12,
              "hi_d": 79.86,
              "le_a": 82.15,
              "le_d": 79.15,
              "lo_a": 79.68,
              "lo_d": 78.46,
              "tracts_a": 5,
              "tracts_d": 37
            },
            {
              "city": "Houston, TX",
              "hi_a": 81.99,
              "hi_d": 79.72,
              "le_a": 80.9,
              "le_d": 77.65,
              "lo_a": 79.63,
              "lo_d": 74.83,
              "tracts_a": 21,
              "tracts_d": 14
            },
            {
              "city": "Wichita, KS",
              "hi_a": 78.66,
              "hi_d": 73.57,
              "le_a": 76.45,
              "le_d": 72.54,
              "lo_a": 74.46,
              "lo_d": 71.42,
              "tracts_a": 5,
              "tracts_d": 19
            },
            {
              "city": "Passaic County, NJ",
              "hi_a": 83.37,
              "hi_d": 79,
              "le_a": 81.39,
              "le_d": 77.42,
              "lo_a": 79.2,
              "lo_d": 75.69,
              "tracts_a": 5,
              "tracts_d": 19
            },
            {
              "city": "Los Angeles, CA",
              "hi_a": 84.44,
              "hi_d": 79.87,
              "le_a": 83.62,
              "le_d": 79.46,
              "lo_a": 82.75,
              "lo_d": 79.1,
              "tracts_a": 48,
              "tracts_d": 269
            },
            {
              "city": "Detroit, MI",
              "hi_a": 79.75,
              "hi_d": 73.6,
              "le_a": 77.47,
              "le_d": 72.96,
              "lo_a": 75.08,
              "lo_d": 72.32,
              "tracts_a": 20,
              "tracts_d": 91
            },
            {
              "city": "San Francisco, CA",
              "hi_a": 87.22,
              "hi_d": 81.58,
              "le_a": 85.44,
              "le_d": 80.91,
              "lo_a": 83.56,
              "lo_d": 80.26,
              "tracts_a": 6,
              "tracts_d": 54
            },
            {
              "city": "Manhattan, NY",
              "hi_a": 87.31,
              "hi_d": 82.51,
              "le_a": 86.18,
              "le_d": 81.65,
              "lo_a": 84.87,
              "lo_d": 80.77,
              "tracts_a": 13,
              "tracts_d": 114
            },
            {
              "city": "San Antonio, TX",
              "hi_a": 80.9,
              "hi_d": 75.36,
              "le_a": 79.21,
              "le_d": 74.41,
              "lo_a": 77.89,
              "lo_d": 73.64,
              "tracts_a": 5,
              "tracts_d": 22
            },
            {
              "city": "Minneapolis, MN",
              "hi_a": 83.54,
              "hi_d": 78.26,
              "le_a": 81.71,
              "le_d": 76.85,
              "lo_a": 79.56,
              "lo_d": 75.36,
              "tracts_a": 8,
              "tracts_d": 15
            },
            {
              "city": "Union Co., NJ",
              "hi_a": 83.58,
              "hi_d": 78.73,
              "le_a": 82.17,
              "le_d": 77.27,
              "lo_a": 80.6,
              "lo_d": 75.86,
              "tracts_a": 9,
              "tracts_d": 15
            },
            {
              "city": "Essex Co., NJ",
              "hi_a": 83.59,
              "hi_d": 78.76,
              "le_a": 82.33,
              "le_d": 76.96,
              "lo_a": 81.06,
              "lo_d": 75.12,
              "tracts_a": 22,
              "tracts_d": 35
            },
            {
              "city": "Fort Worth, TX",
              "hi_a": 82.73,
              "hi_d": 76.16,
              "le_a": 80.32,
              "le_d": 74.87,
              "lo_a": 78.45,
              "lo_d": 73.44,
              "tracts_a": 5,
              "tracts_d": 15
            },
            {
              "city": "Philadelphia, PA",
              "hi_a": 80.99,
              "hi_d": 74.66,
              "le_a": 79.57,
              "le_d": 73.89,
              "lo_a": 78.25,
              "lo_d": 73.17,
              "tracts_a": 26,
              "tracts_d": 127
            },
            {
              "city": "Baltimore, MD",
              "hi_a": 81.72,
              "hi_d": 74.17,
              "le_a": 78.62,
              "le_d": 72.57,
              "lo_a": 75.5,
              "lo_d": 70.88,
              "tracts_a": 9,
              "tracts_d": 36
            },
            {
              "city": "Miami, FL",
              "hi_a": 83.53,
              "hi_d": 77.45,
              "le_a": 82.39,
              "le_d": 75.9,
              "lo_a": 81.27,
              "lo_d": 74.47,
              "tracts_a": 8,
              "tracts_d": 30
            },
            {
              "city": "St. Louis, MO",
              "hi_a": 82.03,
              "hi_d": 74.84,
              "le_a": 80.36,
              "le_d": 73.73,
              "lo_a": 78.71,
              "lo_d": 72.65,
              "tracts_a": 17,
              "tracts_d": 14
            },
            {
              "city": "Des Moines, IA",
              "hi_a": 80.64,
              "hi_d": 74.71,
              "le_a": 79.69,
              "le_d": 72.98,
              "lo_a": 78.7,
              "lo_d": 71.24,
              "tracts_a": 7,
              "tracts_d": 12
            },
            {
              "city": "Chicago, IL",
              "hi_a": 84.67,
              "hi_d": 77.1,
              "le_a": 83.34,
              "le_d": 76.49,
              "lo_a": 81.94,
              "lo_d": 75.85,
              "tracts_a": 13,
              "tracts_d": 210
            },
            {
              "city": "Columbus, OH",
              "hi_a": 81,
              "hi_d": 74.48,
              "le_a": 78.88,
              "le_d": 71.71,
              "lo_a": 76.4,
              "lo_d": 68.86,
              "tracts_a": 10,
              "tracts_d": 10
            },
            {
              "city": "Oakland, CA",
              "hi_a": 86.88,
              "hi_d": 78.84,
              "le_a": 85.2,
              "le_d": 77.84,
              "lo_a": 83.69,
              "lo_d": 76.94,
              "tracts_a": 11,
              "tracts_d": 39
            },
            {
              "city": "Cleveland, OH",
              "hi_a": 81.62,
              "hi_d": 72.58,
              "le_a": 80.18,
              "le_d": 71.71,
              "lo_a": 78.76,
              "lo_d": 70.89,
              "tracts_a": 23,
              "tracts_d": 43
            },
            {
              "city": "Pittsburgh, PA",
              "hi_a": 83.27,
              "hi_d": 74.53,
              "le_a": 82,
              "le_d": 73.09,
              "lo_a": 80.8,
              "lo_d": 71.64,
              "tracts_a": 7,
              "tracts_d": 31
            },
            {
              "city": "Milwaukee Co., WI",
              "hi_a": 86.01,
              "hi_d": 75.8,
              "le_a": 84.66,
              "le_d": 74.79,
              "lo_a": 82.76,
              "lo_d": 73.77,
              "tracts_a": 5,
              "tracts_d": 37
            },
            {
              "city": "Indianapolis, IN",
              "hi_a": 82.38,
              "hi_d": 72.31,
              "le_a": 81.28,
              "le_d": 71.33,
              "lo_a": 80.19,
              "lo_d": 70.37,
              "tracts_a": 6,
              "tracts_d": 36
            },
            {
              "city": "Louisville, KY",
              "hi_a": 82.54,
              "hi_d": 71.7,
              "le_a": 80.54,
              "le_d": 70.34,
              "lo_a": 78.27,
              "lo_d": 68.59,
              "tracts_a": 6,
              "tracts_d": 14
            },
            {
              "city": "Nashville, TN",
              "hi_a": 83.54,
              "hi_d": 71.51,
              "le_a": 82.2,
              "le_d": 70.22,
              "lo_a": 80.79,
              "lo_d": 69.07,
              "tracts_a": 6,
              "tracts_d": 20
            }
          ],
          "id": "holc_city_gaps",
          "spec": {
            "deltaLabel": "Gap, grade A minus grade D (years)",
            "hi1": "hi_d",
            "hi2": "hi_a",
            "label1": "Grade D tracts",
            "label2": "Grade A tracts",
            "lo1": "lo_d",
            "lo2": "lo_a",
            "n1": "tracts_d",
            "n2": "tracts_a",
            "sort": "change-desc",
            "x1": "le_d",
            "x2": "le_a",
            "xDomain": [
              66,
              90
            ],
            "xFormat": {
              "digits": 1
            },
            "xLabel": "Life expectancy at birth (years)",
            "y": "city"
          },
          "subtitle": "Population-weighted mean life expectancy at birth of grade D and grade A tracts in each city with enough tracts, deaths in 2010 to 2015",
          "title": "In each of {fact:holc_city_n} HOLC cities life expectancy is higher in grade A tracts than in grade D tracts, with a median gap of {fact:holc_city_median} years",
          "type": "dumbbell"
        },
        "label": "City by city"
      }
    ]
  },
  "subtitle": "Tract outcomes by 1930s HOLC grade: means of five measures, the spread of life expectancy, and the gap between grade A and grade D tracts city by city",
  "title": "Tracts graded A on the 1930s HOLC maps have a life expectancy of {fact:holc_le_a} years, against {fact:holc_le_d} years in tracts graded D, for deaths in 2010 to 2015",
  "type": "tabs",
  "width": "wide"
}