# Place and the length of a life: report Chapter 8.4 of ZIP Code Destiny, by Vishal Singh (NYU Stern). Generated from the chapter's data files; the reading version is at https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/place-and-the-length-of-a-life. Table n of this report is figure n of the chapter. ## Identification - Title: Place and the length of a life - Label: Two addresses - Chapter: 8.4 (Part VIII, Early death; An American life) - Question: How far apart are life expectancies in nearby neighborhoods, and how steadily does life expectancy fall with neighborhood deprivation? - Dek: Life expectancy at birth was 82.3 years in the least deprived tenth of census tracts and 74.0 years in the most deprived, for deaths recorded in 2010 to 2015. - Grain: neighborhoods - Status: published - Published: 2026-10-09 - Updated: 2026-10-11 - Data sources: - USALEEP life expectancy. USALEEP life expectancy at birth with standard errors, 2010-2015: native 2010 tracts for the pairs, 2020 tracts (area-weighted from 2010 tracts, institutional tracts dropped) for everything else; years: 2010-2015; weights: ACS 2019-2023 tract population - Area Deprivation Index. Neighborhood Atlas Area Deprivation Index 2023, national percentile, 2020 tracts; years: 2023 release (version 4.0.1; built on ACS 2019-2023); weights: ACS 2019-2023 tract population, also for the ADI's split by county (over the frame of tracts of the chapter on gradients, slopes and variance) - American Community Survey. ACS 2019-2023 tracts: population (weights and the population floor of the pairs); years: 2019-2023 (5-year); weights: tract population - Census TIGER/Line tracts. Census 2020 tracts: internal points (distances in the pairs) and tract names; Census 2020 county file: the core-based statistical area of each county; years: 2020; weights: none (locations) - CDC PLACES. CDC PLACES 2024 release, tracts: current smoking and routine checkup among adults; years: 2024 release (tracts); 2025 release (ZCTAs, 2023 data year); weights: adult population of each tract (PLACES) - Published estimates from cited studies. Estimates from Ludwig and coauthors (2011) and Chetty, Hendren and Katz (2016), quoted in the box on the Moving to Opportunity experiment; years: as reported in each study; weights: as reported in each study - Canonical URL: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/place-and-the-length-of-a-life - Report: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/report - Markdown: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/report.md - BibTeX key: singh2026placeandthelengthofalife ```bibtex @misc{singh2026placeandthelengthofalife, author = {Singh, Vishal}, title = {Place and the length of a life}, year = {2026}, url = {https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/place-and-the-length-of-a-life}, note = {In ZIP Code Destiny. Published 9 October 2026; updated 11 October 2026.} } ``` ## Principal estimates The facts the dek and the opening prose cite, in order of appearance. | Estimand | Population | Period | Value | Interval | n | Weights | Source | Fact id | | --- | --- | --- | ---: | --- | ---: | --- | --- | --- | | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy in a tenth of tracts (rank bins of the ADI; tracts with tied ranks fall in the same tenth), bootstrap interval over counties | residents of tracts in the least deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 82.3 | 95% CI 82.0 to 82.6 | 7,820 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | le_d1 | | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy in a tenth of tracts (rank bins of the ADI; tracts with tied ranks fall in the same tenth), bootstrap interval over counties | residents of tracts in the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 74.0 | 95% CI 73.7 to 74.3 | 7,844 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | le_d10 | | count of tracts in the gradient | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 77,936 | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | n_gradient_tracts | | difference between the population-weighted mean life expectancy of the least and the most deprived tenth of tracts, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 8.3 | 95% CI 7.9 to 8.7 | 7,844 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | le_decile_drop | ## Findings Life expectancy at birth was 82.3 years in the least deprived tenth of census tracts and 74.0 years in the most deprived, for deaths recorded in 2010 to 2015.[1] Both are population-weighted averages of tenths cut from the 77,936 non-institutional tracts in the states and DC that have a life expectancy estimate and a deprivation rank. The difference between them is 8.3 (95% CI 7.9 to 8.7) years, with an interval from resampling whole counties. This chapter asks how steadily life expectancy falls with deprivation, what a county average leaves out, how far apart nearby neighborhoods are, whether the ordering repeats inside metros and counties, and what an experiment adds about moving. The introduction (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/place-across-an-american-life) places the comparison among the book's other outcomes and sources. A life expectancy estimate summarizes the death rates of a place during a period. It is the average age at death of newborns who would meet, at every age, the death rates that the tract recorded in 2010 to 2015, and it does not predict the lifespan of a particular child. Deprivation is measured separately, by the Area Deprivation Index (ADI), a national percentile built from census measures of income, education, employment and housing.[2] The ADI describes 2019 to 2023, after the deaths behind the life expectancy estimates, so the opening comparison sets an earlier pattern of mortality beside a later description of neighborhood conditions. The distance between the two averages calls for a closer look. Comparing only the ends of a scale leaves the middle unseen. Comparing distant places mixes differences in their residents with differences in their surroundings, and a detailed map can exaggerate a contrast when each neighborhood's estimate is uncertain. The sections below take up those problems in turn. ### A national pattern needs a closer look Arranging the tracts from least to most deprived and cutting the ranking into tenths gives a mean life expectancy that is lower in every tenth than in the one before (Table 1). The means are weighted by tract population. The ordering holds along the whole scale, and the size of the step changes along the way. The step between the two least deprived tenths is 1.3 (95% CI 1.0 to 1.6) years and the step between the two most deprived is 1.9 (95% CI 1.6 to 2.1) years, and the steps are largest at the two ends. Between neighboring ADI percentiles the line sometimes rises by a fraction of a year. In the units of the index itself, life expectancy is 0.84 (95% CI 0.75 to 0.92) years lower for each ten-point step in the ADI percentile across all tracts. Tracts with similar ranks still differ. A tract's estimate has a median standard error of 1.7 years, so part of the spread among tracts at one rank is estimation error, and part is differences that the deprivation rank does not summarize. The line describes an ordering of averages and leaves much about individual places unexplained. Table 1. Life expectancy is lower in each higher tenth of tracts by deprivation, and smoking rises with it while the annual checkup rises little The figure keeps these ideas apart. The line is the mean at each ADI percentile. The shaded band is the interquartile range of tract estimates, a spread of places that includes estimation error and spans several years at every percentile. The markers on the tenths carry intervals from a bootstrap over counties, which describe uncertainty about those averages. Averaging over thousands of tracts shrinks the error of a mean to a small interval, so a wide band of neighborhoods can surround a precisely estimated line, and the band is not the uncertainty of the line. A single dot in the first tab says little on its own. ### County averages leave differences out A county is a useful administrative unit, and it can contain neighborhoods with different incomes, housing and health. New York City makes the problem visible, because each of its five boroughs is also a county. Table 2 shades the 2,074 non-institutional tracts of the city that have an estimate and an ADI rank. In every borough the 5th to 95th percentile of tract life expectancy spans at least 9.3 years, while the borough means lie within 4.2 years of one another. The shades need care. The estimates describe deaths in 2010 to 2015 and were moved by area from the 2010 tract boundaries onto the 2020 outlines drawn here. The published standard errors, which understate the noise, put estimation error at 37% of the variance of these estimates, so the map tends to exaggerate the contrast between neighbors. It gives a view inside the borough averages, and the edge between two shades is not a precise boundary in residents' prospects. A gray tract has no estimate or was excluded, and it is not a zero. Table 2. Within every New York City borough, the 5th to 95th percentile of tract life expectancy spans at least 9.3 years, while the borough means lie within 4.2 years of one another A comparison of nearby neighborhoods needs a selection rule as well. Tract life expectancy is a modeled estimate with a standard error, and picking the pairs with the largest apparent gaps would also pick the largest estimation errors. The pairs in Table 3 are chosen instead by their difference in deprivation, in the 20 most populous counties only, subject to requirements on distance, population, boundary stability and precision. The rule never compares the life expectancy of the tracts in a pair; it uses the estimate only to require one with a small enough standard error. Each pair uses the native estimates for deaths in 2010 to 2015 on the 2010 tract boundaries and the ADI for 2019 to 2023, so the deprivation measures date from about a decade after the deaths. Table 3. In 17 large counties, the pair of tracts within 5 kilometers with the widest ADI difference had higher life expectancy in the less deprived tract in 15, and a median gap over the pairs of 5.4 years The pairs are selected by deprivation differences rather than by their life expectancy gaps, so the selection rule does not directly choose the largest outcome estimates. Method note, How the neighborhoods were paired: A tract qualifies if its boundary did not change between the 2010 and 2020 censuses, it is not an institutional tract, it has at least 2,000 residents and the standard error of its estimate is at most 2.0 years. Among qualifying tracts within 5 kilometers of each other, a county's pair is the one whose ADI differs most, and it counts if the difference reaches 50 percentile points. In 15 of the 17 pairs the less deprived tract has the higher estimate, and in 12 the 95% interval for the gap lies above zero. The median gap over all 17 pairs, including those whose gap is not positive, is 5.4 (95% CI 3.0 to 6.9) years, with an interval from a bootstrap over pairs. The gap treats the two standard errors as independent. This is a result about the pairs that meet the rule in the large counties searched. It does not estimate the gap between a typical pair of neighbors in the country, and it depends on the settings of the rule, above all the radius. Pairs chosen within 3 kilometers have a median gap of 2.7 years (see [alternative choices](https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/report#methods-alternative-choices) in Methods for the other settings). Showing the complete set keeps the widest contrast from standing in for every comparison. The widest pair is in Cook County, Illinois, and its tracts lie 5.0 kilometers apart. The more deprived one (ADI 94) had a life expectancy of 65.8 (95% CI 62.5 to 69.1) years and the less deprived one (ADI 24) 78.2 (95% CI 74.7 to 81.7) years, a gap of 12.4 (95% CI 7.6 to 17.2) years. The widest pair of a set is also the one most likely to have been widened by estimation error. Wider gaps may exist among tracts the rule does not pair, because the ADI ranks some tracts alike that differ widely in life expectancy, as it does in high-cost cities (Chapter 1.1, What the deprivation index measures (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/anatomy-of-deprivation)). The largest gaps among noisy estimates are also the least reliable, so the rule does not seek them. ### Most variation lies between tracts in the same county Splitting the variance of tract life expectancy into a part between states, a part between counties in a state and a part between tracts in a county gives 13.7%, 15.9% and 70.3% (Table 4). The split comes from every one of 78,008 tracts in 3,112 counties and Connecticut planning regions and has no sampling interval. The within-county share includes estimation error. The tract estimates are modeled, and their mean squared standard error equals 26.7% of the total variance, all of it inside the within-county share. Taking the published errors at face value, 60% of the variance that is not estimation error lies within counties. Because the 2020-tract errors are mapping grade and understate the noise, the true share is lower. The ADI is the contrast. Only 34% of its variance lies within counties, so the index that ranks tracts for the gradient places most of its variation between counties, while life expectancy places most of its variation inside them. Chapter 1.1, What the deprivation index measures (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/anatomy-of-deprivation) examines what the ADI is made of. Table 4. 70.3 percent of the variance of tract life expectancy lies between tracts in the same county, 26.7 points of it estimation error, against 34% percent for the ADI Table 5 shows the range inside the 30 most populous counties. The 5th to 95th percentile range of tract life expectancy has a median of 10.5 years across them. The widest, 13.9 years in Cook County, is wider than the 8.3-year difference between the means of the nation's least and most deprived tenths, though a range of tract estimates and a difference between means are not the same kind of contrast. Part of every range is estimation error. Shrinking each tract estimate toward its county mean approximates the range net of that error and gives a median range of 7.7 years. The approximation takes the published errors at face value and does not recover the true differences between tracts exactly, and because those errors understate the noise, the shrunken range is an upper bound. The median share of the variance within a county that is estimation error is 43% across these counties, against 38% for all counties together, and each estimate is shrunk by the square root of one minus its county's share. Table 5. In the 30 most populous counties, tract life expectancy spans a median of 10.5 years between the 5th and 95th percentile, 7.7 net of estimation error A map that paints each county one color shows the county mean and hides the range around it. Chapter 1.2, What a county average leaves out (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/deprivation-at-two-zooms) builds the deprivation index at two zooms to see how much a county-level measure keeps. ### Repeating the comparison changes the question The national line compares neighborhoods across the country, and it could arise from where deprived tracts are, with the least deprived concentrated in some regions and the most deprived in others. A different comparison asks whether the ordering also appears among neighborhoods of the same area. Fitting the line separately in each metro, meaning a core-based statistical area of the Census Bureau, tests that. The 267 metros that have at least 40 tracts with an estimate and an ADI rank hold 82% of the residents in the sample. All of them show lower life expectancy in more deprived tracts (Table 6), and the 95% interval lies above zero in 260 of them. The median metro has life expectancy 1.20 (95% CI 1.14 to 1.23) years lower per ten-point step. At the 5th percentile of metros the difference is 0.70 years and at the 95th 1.67. Those percentiles overstate the real spread of slopes, and a ranking of local slopes would put the noisiest estimates at the extremes. Estimation error makes up 48% of the variance of the estimated slopes, and the order of the dots in the figure puts the least precise slopes at both ends, so no metro is named steepest or flattest. Chapter 10.1, Gradients, slopes and variance (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/gradients-slopes-and-variance) shrinks the estimates and reports the same metro slopes. Table 6. Life expectancy is lower in more deprived tracts in all 267 metros with enough tracts, by a median of 1.20 years per ten-point step Comparing only tracts in the same county, with a separate baseline for each county (fixed effects), gives a slope of 1.12 (95% CI 1.07 to 1.16) years per ten-point step, against 0.84 (95% CI 0.75 to 0.92) across all tracts. The within-county slope is the larger of the two, and its interval lies entirely beyond the interval of the national slope, so the same difference in ADI goes with a larger difference in life expectancy inside a county than across the country. These comparisons describe the geography more closely and leave the causal question open. Chapter 10.1, Gradients, slopes and variance (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/gradients-slopes-and-variance) sets out how the slopes and the split of variation are built (the procedures used here are in [Methods](https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/report#methods-local-slopes-and-variance)). ### Some outcomes follow a different pattern Other chapters ask whether the ordering seen in longevity holds for other measures of life, and where it breaks down. The second tab of Table 1 gives a first example. In the PLACES 2024 release, which models survey responses from 2022, the share of adults who smoke was 9.1% (95% CI 8.5% to 9.6%) in the least deprived tenth of tracts and 22.8% (95% CI 22.5% to 23.1%) in the most deprived, 13.7 (95% CI 13.1 to 14.4) points higher. The share who had a routine checkup in the past year was 74.2% and 77.8%, only 3.6 (95% CI 2.4 to 4.6) points higher in the most deprived tenth. The checkup records contact with a physician and not the state of anyone's health. Its small difference across the scale is the exception that Chapter 7.1, Health behaviors and the supply of care (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care) examines beside the dental visit, which falls with deprivation. The smoking and checkup lines are both modeled estimates from CDC PLACES, which draws on survey responses and on census and American Community Survey inputs.[3] The ADI is built from the American Community Survey as well, so part of each of those two gradients is built in. The choice of comparison matters as well. Traffic pollution is lower in more deprived tracts across the country and higher in more deprived tracts within a county (Chapter 6.1, Air pollution (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/air-pollution)). The choice of deprivation measure matters too, because a national ranking combines different kinds of places, and its measures of housing cost can rank expensive neighborhoods in ways that obscure hardship (Chapter 1.1, What the deprivation index measures (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/anatomy-of-deprivation)). Chapter 7.2, Health behaviors, person by person (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/health-behaviors-person-by-person) changes the unit. A survey can ask the same respondent about household income and drinking instead of inferring that relationship from neighborhood averages, and among adults measured one at a time, binge drinking rises with household income except among non-Hispanic Black adults. The survey gains information about individuals and loses geographic detail, because its public files do not support the tract comparisons of the maps. PLACES draws on the same survey, so agreement between the two is not an independent replication. ### Moving is a different question The comparisons so far describe places. A family deciding whether to move faces another question, what would change for that family after the move, and the residents already living in a destination differ from potential movers in ways that a map cannot remove. This is the one section of the chapter that asks what moving does, and it reports a randomized experiment. > Causal evidence: Whether moving to a lower-poverty neighborhood changes health and later income (Randomized housing-voucher experiment) > > Every comparison above is between places, and none says whether a family that moved to a less deprived tract would live longer. The Moving to Opportunity experiment tested part of that question. From 1994 to 1998 the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development randomly assigned families in public housing in high-poverty census tracts to a voucher usable only in a low-poverty tract, to an unrestricted voucher, or to no voucher.[4] > > In a survey in 2008 to 2010 of the women who had enrolled, the prevalence of a glycated hemoglobin level of 6.5% or more, a marker of diabetes, was 4.3 (95% CI 0.8 to 7.8) points lower in the group offered the low-poverty voucher than in the control group, and the prevalence of a body-mass index of 40 or more was 3.4 (95% CI 0.4 to 6.4) points lower. The unrestricted voucher showed no significant difference.[4] > > Chetty, Hendren and Katz followed the children through tax records. Children assigned the experimental voucher before age 13 had an annual income 14% higher in their mid-twenties than the control group, an intention-to-treat comparison that includes families who did not move. Only 48% of the families took up the voucher, and scaling the comparison by take-up gives 31% for the children of families that did.[5] > > Neither study measured life expectancy. The health results are for women who volunteered for the program from public housing in the poorest tracts, and the health results and the first income comparison are between groups assigned an offer of a voucher, which is not the same as every family moving. They do not give the size of the change along the full ADI scale. The book sets this evidence beside its descriptive comparisons and does not treat the experiment as an explanation of the whole gradient. ### Life expectancy falls across tenths of tracts under all four rankings Over the 71,771 tracts that have every ranking, the ADI baseline runs from 82.3 (95% CI 82.1 to 82.6) years in the least deprived tenth to 74.0 (95% CI 73.8 to 74.3) in the most deprived, with a rank correlation of −1.00 between tenth and mean (Table 7). Under the standardized index, which applies the ADI's coefficients after standardizing each of its measures, the tenths run from 82.4 (95% CI 82.2 to 82.5) to 74.7 (95% CI 74.2 to 75.1) years with a correlation of −1.00. Ranking tracts by median household income gives 82.2 (95% CI 82.0 to 82.4) and 74.2 (95% CI 73.9 to 74.4) years (−1.00), and ranking them by the bachelor's degree share gives 82.3 (95% CI 82.0 to 82.5) and 75.3 (95% CI 74.9 to 75.7) years (−1.00). Under the rule of Chapter 9.1, How far one ranking goes (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/how-far-one-ranking-goes) none of the three counts as a change, since the ends differ under each ranking and every correlation stays beyond 0.9 in absolute value. Table 7. Life expectancy at birth is steadily worse toward the more deprived end under the ADI and under each of the three other rankings ### Where to read next The rest of this part follows deaths before old age by cause. Chapter 8.1, Gun homicide and the causes of early death (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/gun-homicide-and-causes-of-early-death) follows firearm homicide into the few neighborhoods where it concentrates, Chapter 8.2, Overdose, alcohol and suicide (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/overdose-alcohol-and-suicide) maps overdose, alcohol-induced deaths and suicide by county, Chapter 8.3, Mortality trends, 2018 to 2024 (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/mortality-trends-2018-2024) follows those deaths from 2018 to 2024, and Chapter 8.5, Violence and the life-expectancy gap (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/violence-and-the-life-expectancy-gap) asks how much of this chapter's gap between the least and the most deprived tenths homicide accounts for. Reading paths connect to this chapter's comparisons. [The argument in eight chapters](https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/path/core) follows the main line through the volumes, [differences inside one county](https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/path/the-hyper-local-map) follows the within-county comparison, and [outcomes that do not follow the gradient](https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/path/the-exception) collects the exceptions. The [contents page](https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/contents) lists every chapter with its finding. ### What these data cannot show Outside the box, every number here describes places. A tract with a lower life expectancy and a higher ADI is a tract whose residents, taken together, died younger in 2010 to 2015, and the data do not say which of them did, or whether a person who moved would have died later (ecological inference). The pairs show that nearby tracts differ, and the data cannot separate what the places do from who lives in them. The experiment in the box covers women and children who enrolled in one program, and it does not say how much of the gradient in the figures would change if a place changed. The periods differ. The life expectancy estimates are modeled for deaths in 2010 to 2015 and were never updated. The ADI is a national percentile built on survey data for 2019 to 2023, and it may rank a tract differently from the way the same tract looked in 2010. The geography is matched imperfectly. The 2020-tract file used for the gradient is area-weighted from 2010 tracts, and its errors are mapping grade, approximations that understate the uncertainty. Because the pairs are chosen on the ADI among large counties, their median describes that rule, as the sensitivity to the radius shows, and says nothing about counties that are small or rural. The counties left out are Los Angeles, Santa Clara and Alameda, all in California, and the ADI understates deprivation in high-cost cities, so a qualifying pair there may exist and not be found. The distances are straight lines and not rides. Puerto Rico has no life expectancy estimates and is not included, and Connecticut's planning regions stand in for its counties. Institutional tracts are dropped, and a tract without an estimate is absent and not zero. The estimates are modeled. A tract's life expectancy has a median standard error of 1.7 years, which the intervals in Table 3 show. The intervals in the figures come from resampling counties of published estimates, and they leave out error in the life expectancy model beyond its standard errors, error from moving estimates onto 2020 tracts and uncertainty in the ADI. The PLACES measures are modeled estimates built partly from the same census and survey inputs as the ADI, so the lines for smoking and the checkup show how the model maps those inputs into prevalence as well as how adults differ. ## Tables ### Table 1. Life expectancy is lower in each higher tenth of tracts by deprivation, and smoking rises with it while the annual checkup rises little Tract life expectancy at birth by Area Deprivation Index percentile, and two modeled health measures by tenth of tracts #### Table 1.1. Life expectancy Life expectancy at birth falls from 82.3 years in the least deprived tenth of tracts to 74.0 years in the most deprived Life expectancy at birth against the Area Deprivation Index national percentile, one dot per sampled tract, with the population-weighted mean and the interquartile range of tracts at each percentile, deaths in 2010 to 2015 No inline rows: the values of Table 1.1 are in https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/le_by_adi_tracts.json. #### Table 1.2. Smoking and checkups Smoking rises from 9.1% to 22.8% across tenths of tracts by deprivation, and the annual checkup moves from 74.2% to 77.8% Percent of adults who currently smoke and percent who had a routine checkup in the past year, by tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, modeled tract estimates, BRFSS 2022 | conf_high | conf_low | decile | estimate | n | series | | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | --- | | 9.59 | 8.53 | 1 | 9.06 | 8,274 | Current smoking | | 11.25 | 10.20 | 2 | 10.74 | 8,118 | Current smoking | | 11.99 | 11.28 | 3 | 11.62 | 8,511 | Current smoking | | 12.88 | 12.45 | 4 | 12.67 | 8,261 | Current smoking | | 14.09 | 13.70 | 5 | 13.89 | 8,189 | Current smoking | | 15.28 | 14.93 | 6 | 15.10 | 8,318 | Current smoking | | 16.54 | 16.25 | 7 | 16.39 | 8,305 | Current smoking | | 17.94 | 17.61 | 8 | 17.78 | 8,238 | Current smoking | | 19.62 | 19.27 | 9 | 19.45 | 8,354 | Current smoking | | 23.14 | 22.46 | 10 | 22.81 | 8,213 | Current smoking | | 75.29 | 73.23 | 1 | 74.16 | 8,274 | Annual checkup | | 75.40 | 73.25 | 2 | 74.27 | 8,118 | Annual checkup | | 75.35 | 74 | 3 | 74.67 | 8,511 | Annual checkup | | 75.41 | 74.40 | 4 | 74.90 | 8,261 | Annual checkup | | 75.89 | 75.06 | 5 | 75.46 | 8,189 | Annual checkup | | 76.26 | 75.45 | 6 | 75.85 | 8,318 | Annual checkup | | 76.59 | 75.81 | 7 | 76.21 | 8,305 | Annual checkup | | 76.96 | 76.26 | 8 | 76.62 | 8,238 | Annual checkup | | 77.44 | 76.83 | 9 | 77.14 | 8,354 | Annual checkup | | 78.18 | 77.34 | 10 | 77.76 | 8,213 | Annual checkup | Source: USALEEP, 2010-2015; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; CDC PLACES 2024 release (BRFSS 2022); population-weighted, modeled estimates Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/le_gradient.json ### Table 2. Within every New York City borough, the 5th to 95th percentile of tract life expectancy spans at least 9.3 years, while the borough means lie within 4.2 years of one another Life expectancy at birth of 2,074 census tracts in the five boroughs of New York City, deaths in 2010 to 2015, on 2020 tracts; 250 tracts are gray because they have no value No inline rows: the values of Table 2 are in https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/nyc_le_map.json. Note: The unit is the 2020 census tract. Life expectancy is the USALEEP estimate for deaths in 2010 to 2015, which the National Center for Health Statistics built on 2010 tracts and which is area-weighted onto 2020 tracts here, so the estimate for a 2020 tract blends the 2010 tracts that overlap it and its standard error is mapping grade, which understates the error. Every shade is a modeled estimate with a standard error (the median is 2.0 years), and the interval in the tooltip is a normal-approximation 95% interval built from the standard error. Note: Taking the published standard errors at face value, estimation error makes up 37% of the variance of these estimates. If the errors of neighboring tracts are independent, the difference between two neighbors carries the sum of their error variances, so a map of noisy estimates exaggerates the contrast between neighbors. That is why the pairs figure chooses its pairs on the ADI, which shares no sampling error with life expectancy. This map marks no tract. Note: 2,074 tracts are shaded: the non-institutional tracts of the five counties of New York City (Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens and Richmond) that have a life expectancy estimate, an ACS 2019-2023 population above zero and an ADI rank, which is the sample of the gradient. 250 are gray because the tract has no residents in the survey, no published estimate, an institutional population or no ADI rank; the tooltip names which. Note: Ranges are population-weighted 5th and 95th percentiles of tract estimates, and borough means are population-weighted. A range of tract estimates and a spread of borough means are not the same kind of contrast, and the range includes estimation error. The range net of error shrinks each tract estimate toward its borough mean by the square root of one minus the borough's share of variance that is estimation error, as in the county spread figure, and is an upper bound because the 2020-tract errors are mapping grade. Source: USALEEP life expectancy at birth, 2010-2015, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population; population-weighted ranges; modeled estimates Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/nyc_le_map.json ### Table 3. In 17 large counties, the pair of tracts within 5 kilometers with the widest ADI difference had higher life expectancy in the less deprived tract in 15, and a median gap over the pairs of 5.4 years Life expectancy at birth in the two tracts of one pair per county, the pair with the widest ADI difference, in 17 of the 20 most populous counties, native 2010 tracts, deaths in 2010 to 2015, 95% intervals | County and tracts | Life expectancy, more deprived tract (years) | Life expectancy, less deprived tract (years) | Gap (years) | ADI, more deprived tract | ADI, less deprived tract | Distance (kilometers) | | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | | Cook County, IL (tracts 4910 and 7201) | 65.8 | 78.2 | 12.4 | 94 | 24 | 5.0 | | Harris County, TX (tracts 4222 and 4207) | 74.7 | 80.9 | 6.2 | 100 | 14 | 4.8 | | Maricopa County, AZ (tracts 4204.01 and 4204.02) | 73.2 | 80.4 | 7.2 | 94 | 14 | 4.7 | | San Diego County, CA (tracts 202.09 and 207.06) | 79.2 | 78.5 | −0.7 | 69 | 5 | 4.4 | | Orange County, CA (tracts 748.02 and 751) | 76.2 | 82.3 | 6.1 | 61 | 10 | 2.2 | | Miami-Dade County, FL (tracts 1.24 and 11.04) | 75.9 | 81.3 | 5.4 | 88 | 9 | 4.5 | | Kings County, NY (tracts 596 and 422) | 78.5 | 81.0 | 2.5 | 67 | 1 | 3.1 | | Riverside County, CA (tracts 422.09 and 306.03) | 75.8 | 80.1 | 4.3 | 90 | 11 | 4.7 | | Dallas County, TX (tracts 136.21 and 136.11) | 77.6 | 80.6 | 3.0 | 72 | 6 | 2.0 | | Queens County, NY (tracts 240 and 1333) | 76.8 | 83.7 | 6.9 | 66 | 5 | 3.9 | | King County, WA (tracts 308.01 and 299.02) | 72.8 | 79.4 | 6.6 | 89 | 14 | 4.1 | | San Bernardino County, CA (tracts 87.10 and 87.08) | 74.2 | 79.1 | 4.9 | 98 | 24 | 2.1 | | Clark County, NV (tracts 29.65 and 29.47) | 79.1 | 79.6 | 0.5 | 86 | 18 | 3.8 | | Tarrant County, TX (tracts 1025 and 1054.05) | 69.1 | 79.1 | 10.0 | 82 | 6 | 2.4 | | Broward County, FL (tracts 104.02 and 105.02) | 79.9 | 79.9 | 0.0 | 92 | 20 | 3.1 | | Bexar County, TX (tracts 1702 and 1902) | 76.7 | 81.0 | 4.3 | 96 | 30 | 4.6 | | Wayne County, MI (tracts 5015 and 5506) | 70.9 | 78.3 | 7.4 | 94 | 10 | 4.0 | Note: The two tracts of a pair are chosen on the ADI, not on life expectancy, so the differences are not the largest that could be found among noisy estimates. A county with no pair that reaches an ADI difference of 50 percentile points is left out (3 of the 20 counties). Note: Life expectancy is the native estimate for the 2010 tract, used only where the boundary did not change by 2020, meaning that the 2010 and 2020 tracts with one GEOID share at least 99% of the land area of each, so the ADI and the ACS population of the 2020 tract describe the same ground. Distances are straight lines between the Census internal points of the tracts, and the data hold no transit routes. Intervals are normal-approximation 95% intervals from the standard error; the gap treats the two errors as independent. Institutional tracts are excluded. Source: USALEEP life expectancy at birth on 2010 tracts, 2010-2015, with standard errors; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; ACS 2019-2023; modeled estimates Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/neighborhood_pairs.json ### Table 4. 70.3 percent of the variance of tract life expectancy lies between tracts in the same county, 26.7 points of it estimation error, against 34% percent for the ADI Share of the population-weighted variance of tract life expectancy and of the ADI national percentile that lies between states, between counties in a state and between tracts in a county, percent | level | measure | share | | --- | --- | ---: | | Between states | Tract life expectancy | 13.75 | | Between counties in a state | Tract life expectancy | 15.92 | | Between tracts in a county | Tract life expectancy | 43.62 | | Estimation error within counties | Tract life expectancy | 26.71 | | Between states | ADI national percentile | 36.64 | | Between counties in a state | ADI national percentile | 29.38 | | Between tracts in a county | ADI national percentile | 33.98 | Note: Tract life expectancy is modeled. The mean squared standard error of the tract estimates equals 26.7 percent of the total variance and sits inside the within-county share, as the two right-hand segments show; the 2020-tract standard errors are mapping grade and understate the noise, so the share of the true differences that lies between tracts in a county is lower than the net share. Note: The life expectancy bar uses 78,008 tracts in 3,112 counties and Connecticut planning regions; the ADI bar uses the tracts of the index in the chapter on gradients, slopes and variance. Connecticut's planning regions stand in for its counties. Source: USALEEP life expectancy, 2010-2015; ACS 2019-2023; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; population-weighted decomposition of the variance, full counts of tracts Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/variance_split.json ### Table 5. In the 30 most populous counties, tract life expectancy spans a median of 10.5 years between the 5th and 95th percentile, 7.7 net of estimation error Population-weighted mean life expectancy at birth of each county (dot) and the 5th to 95th percentile of its tracts (whisker), sorted by the width of the range, deaths in 2010 to 2015 | County | Mean life expectancy (years) | 5th percentile of tracts | 95th percentile of tracts | Range (years) | Range net of estimation error (years) | Estimation error, share of variance (%) | Tracts | Residents | | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | | Cook County, IL | 78.5 | 70.7 | 84.6 | 13.9 | 12.1 | 24 | 1,221 | 4,864,100 | | Wayne County, MI | 75.4 | 68.9 | 82.2 | 13.3 | 11.7 | 23 | 555 | 1,707,514 | | New York County, NY | 82.4 | 75.6 | 88.6 | 13.0 | 10.8 | 31 | 250 | 1,405,675 | | Palm Beach County, FL | 80.6 | 74.0 | 86.9 | 12.9 | 10.8 | 30 | 330 | 1,399,959 | | Philadelphia County, PA | 75.4 | 69.0 | 81.5 | 12.5 | 10.9 | 25 | 364 | 1,502,783 | | Hillsborough County, FL | 78.2 | 71.4 | 83.4 | 12.0 | 9.7 | 35 | 287 | 1,317,655 | | Miami-Dade County, FL | 80.5 | 74.3 | 86.1 | 11.8 | 9.9 | 30 | 655 | 2,544,531 | | Kings County, NY | 79.9 | 73.8 | 85.3 | 11.6 | 8.8 | 42 | 734 | 2,521,198 | | Alameda County, CA | 81.0 | 75.3 | 86.5 | 11.2 | 8.6 | 41 | 362 | 1,598,446 | | Broward County, FL | 79.5 | 73.6 | 84.7 | 11.1 | 8.7 | 39 | 392 | 1,847,256 | | Dallas County, TX | 77.8 | 72.0 | 82.8 | 10.9 | 8.4 | 40 | 561 | 2,324,374 | | King County, WA | 81.3 | 76.1 | 86.9 | 10.8 | 8.1 | 44 | 475 | 2,184,985 | | Harris County, TX | 78.3 | 72.7 | 83.5 | 10.8 | 8.1 | 44 | 1,000 | 4,292,763 | | Queens County, NY | 81.7 | 76.6 | 87.1 | 10.5 | 7.3 | 52 | 656 | 2,250,510 | | Orange County, FL | 79.3 | 73.6 | 84.1 | 10.5 | 8.0 | 42 | 248 | 1,339,363 | | Los Angeles County, CA | 80.6 | 75.4 | 85.9 | 10.5 | 7.8 | 45 | 2,350 | 9,461,723 | | Clark County, NV | 77.7 | 72.2 | 82.5 | 10.3 | 7.2 | 52 | 475 | 2,040,360 | | Bronx County, NY | 78.3 | 73.5 | 83.9 | 10.3 | 7.4 | 49 | 326 | 1,369,766 | | Riverside County, CA | 79.4 | 74.1 | 84.3 | 10.2 | 7.6 | 45 | 492 | 2,352,240 | | San Diego County, CA | 80.9 | 75.9 | 85.8 | 9.9 | 7.2 | 47 | 681 | 3,038,849 | | Middlesex County, MA | 81.8 | 77.4 | 87.1 | 9.7 | 7.6 | 40 | 338 | 1,544,211 | | San Bernardino County, CA | 78.4 | 73.5 | 83.2 | 9.7 | 7.1 | 47 | 447 | 2,093,159 | | Sacramento County, CA | 78.8 | 74.2 | 83.9 | 9.7 | 7.6 | 39 | 343 | 1,515,289 | | Bexar County, TX | 78.2 | 73.1 | 82.8 | 9.7 | 7.3 | 43 | 334 | 1,812,879 | | Maricopa County, AZ | 78.8 | 73.9 | 83.5 | 9.6 | 6.8 | 50 | 865 | 3,980,946 | | Tarrant County, TX | 78.0 | 73.0 | 82.4 | 9.4 | 6.5 | 52 | 402 | 1,931,602 | | Orange County, CA | 81.7 | 77.6 | 86.1 | 8.5 | 4.9 | 67 | 575 | 2,964,928 | | Nassau County, NY | 82.4 | 78.6 | 87.0 | 8.4 | 6.3 | 43 | 272 | 1,358,476 | | Santa Clara County, CA | 82.8 | 78.8 | 87.1 | 8.3 | 4.2 | 75 | 393 | 1,835,064 | | Suffolk County, NY | 80.7 | 77.0 | 84.5 | 7.5 | 5.0 | 55 | 359 | 1,400,449 | Views: Tract estimates (every row); Net of estimation error (every row). Note: Tract estimates are modeled, so the range of the estimates is wider than the range of the true values. The second view takes the published standard errors at face value: the median share of the variance within a county that is estimation error is 43%, against 38% for all counties together. The shrinkage multiplies the distance of the 5th and 95th percentiles from the county mean by the square root of one minus that share. The 2020-tract errors are mapping grade, so the range net of error is an upper bound. The range of tract estimates is not like-for-like with a difference between means of tenths. Note: Counties are chosen by population and not by range. With 15 counties the median range is 10.5 years and with 60 it is 10.5. Institutional tracts are dropped. Connecticut's planning regions stand in for its counties. Source: USALEEP life expectancy, 2010-2015; ACS 2019-2023 population; population-weighted percentiles of tract values, modeled estimates Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/county_spread.json ### Table 6. Life expectancy is lower in more deprived tracts in all 267 metros with enough tracts, by a median of 1.20 years per ten-point step One regression of tract life expectancy on the ADI national percentile in each metro with enough tracts, shown by metro and as a distribution, deaths in 2010 to 2015 #### Table 6.1. Slope by metro Life expectancy is lower in more deprived tracts in every metro, from 0.70 years per ten-point step at the 5th percentile of metros to 1.67 at the 95th Slope of tract life expectancy at birth on the ADI national percentile within each metro, years lower per ten-point step, one dot per metro labeled by its most populous county, deaths in 2010 to 2015 | conf_high | conf_low | errors | estimate | metro | n | | ---: | ---: | --- | ---: | --- | ---: | | 1.46 | 1.09 | HC3 errors | 1.27 | Summit, OH | 167 | | 1.73 | 0.711 | HC3 errors | 1.22 | Dougherty, GA | 43 | | 1.55 | 0.922 | Clustered on counties | 1.24 | Albany, NY | 232 | | 1.17 | 0.770 | HC3 errors | 0.968 | Bernalillo, NM | 223 | | 1.90 | 0.894 | HC3 errors | 1.39 | Rapides, LA | 42 | | 1.13 | 0.802 | HC3 errors | 0.965 | Lehigh, PA | 188 | | 1.30 | 0.637 | Clustered on counties | 0.970 | Randall, TX | 64 | | 1.84 | 1.07 | HC3 errors | 1.45 | Anchorage, AK | 79 | | 1.71 | 1.15 | HC3 errors | 1.43 | Washtenaw, MI | 86 | | 1.63 | 0.507 | HC3 errors | 1.07 | Outagamie, WI | 52 | | 0.934 | 0.363 | HC3 errors | 0.649 | Buncombe, NC | 112 | | 1.59 | 0.881 | HC3 errors | 1.23 | Clarke, GA | 53 | | 1.19 | 0.949 | Clustered on counties | 1.07 | Fulton, GA | 1,354 | | 1.18 | 0.542 | HC3 errors | 0.859 | Atlantic, NJ | 69 | | 1.06 | −0.236 | HC3 errors | 0.411 | Lee, AL | 43 | | 1.26 | 0.917 | Clustered on counties | 1.09 | Richmond, GA | 134 | | 0.846 | 0.511 | Clustered on counties | 0.679 | Travis, TX | 442 | | 1.16 | 0.751 | HC3 errors | 0.957 | Kern, CA | 212 | | 1.67 | 1.14 | Clustered on counties | 1.40 | Baltimore, MD | 670 | | 2.99 | 0.846 | HC3 errors | 1.92 | Barnstable, MA | 52 | | 1.87 | 0.796 | Clustered on counties | 1.33 | East Baton Rouge, LA | 192 | | 1.49 | 0.976 | HC3 errors | 1.23 | Jefferson, TX | 105 | | 1.60 | 0.018 | HC3 errors | 0.807 | Whatcom, WA | 50 | | 2.18 | 0.665 | HC3 errors | 1.42 | Deschutes, OR | 42 | | 2.00 | 0.799 | HC3 errors | 1.40 | Yellowstone, MT | 42 | | 1.88 | 0.700 | HC3 errors | 1.29 | Broome, NY | 64 | | 1.45 | 1.17 | Clustered on counties | 1.31 | Jefferson, AL | 289 | | 1.63 | 0.624 | HC3 errors | 1.13 | McLean, IL | 40 | | 1.17 | 0.843 | Clustered on counties | 1.00 | Ada, ID | 190 | | 1.80 | 0.798 | Clustered on counties | 1.30 | Middlesex, MA | 1,045 | | 1.98 | 0.652 | HC3 errors | 1.31 | Boulder, CO | 64 | | 2.98 | 1.76 | HC3 errors | 2.37 | Kitsap, WA | 53 | | 1.28 | 0.983 | HC3 errors | 1.13 | Western Connecticut, CT | 212 | | 1.73 | 1.00 | HC3 errors | 1.36 | Cameron, TX | 118 | | 1.49 | 1.17 | HC3 errors | 1.33 | Erie, NY | 307 | | 1.76 | 0.633 | HC3 errors | 1.20 | Chittenden, VT | 50 | | 1.84 | 1.31 | HC3 errors | 1.58 | Stark, OH | 95 | | 1.02 | 0.583 | HC3 errors | 0.799 | Lee, FL | 190 | | 1.63 | 0.653 | HC3 errors | 1.14 | Linn, IA | 65 | | 2.34 | 1.40 | HC3 errors | 1.87 | Champaign, IL | 43 | | 1.29 | 0.654 | Clustered on counties | 0.972 | Kanawha, WV | 76 | | 1.06 | 0.708 | HC3 errors | 0.884 | Charleston, SC | 159 | | 1.28 | 0.986 | Clustered on counties | 1.13 | Mecklenburg, NC | 599 | | 1.76 | 0.435 | Clustered on counties | 1.10 | Albemarle, VA | 51 | | 1.60 | 1.01 | Clustered on counties | 1.31 | Hamilton, TN | 130 | | 1.23 | 1.06 | Clustered on counties | 1.15 | Cook, IL | 2,183 | | 2.11 | 1.14 | HC3 errors | 1.63 | Butte, CA | 51 | | 1.69 | 1.45 | Clustered on counties | 1.57 | Hamilton, OH | 522 | | 1.22 | 0.711 | HC3 errors | 0.964 | Montgomery, TN | 52 | | 1.46 | 1.19 | Clustered on counties | 1.33 | Cuyahoga, OH | 589 | | 1.16 | 0.549 | HC3 errors | 0.854 | Brazos, TX | 60 | | 1.81 | 1.09 | HC3 errors | 1.45 | El Paso, CO | 155 | | 1.46 | 0.677 | HC3 errors | 1.07 | Boone, MO | 40 | | 1.33 | 0.942 | Clustered on counties | 1.14 | Richland, SC | 205 | | 1.53 | 1.34 | Clustered on counties | 1.43 | Muscogee, GA | 87 | | 1.74 | 0.972 | Clustered on counties | 1.36 | Franklin, OH | 474 | | 1.18 | 0.518 | HC3 errors | 0.848 | Nueces, TX | 103 | | 1.33 | 0.752 | HC3 errors | 1.04 | Okaloosa, FL | 63 | | 0.986 | 0.834 | Clustered on counties | 0.910 | Dallas, TX | 1,501 | | 1.36 | 0.726 | HC3 errors | 1.04 | Baldwin, AL | 41 | | 1.51 | 0.487 | HC3 errors | 0.996 | Scott, IA | 107 | | 1.87 | 1.45 | HC3 errors | 1.66 | Montgomery, OH | 209 | | 1.57 | 0.953 | HC3 errors | 1.26 | Volusia, FL | 143 | | 1.43 | 0.939 | Clustered on counties | 1.19 | Denver, CO | 635 | | 1.38 | 0.681 | Clustered on counties | 1.03 | Polk, IA | 154 | | 1.40 | 1.20 | Clustered on counties | 1.30 | Wayne, MI | 1,238 | | 1.51 | 0.670 | HC3 errors | 1.09 | St. Louis, MN | 93 | | 1.75 | 0.308 | Clustered on counties | 1.03 | Durham, NC | 131 | | 1.79 | −0.045 | HC3 errors | 0.871 | Monroe, PA | 46 | | 2.17 | 1.36 | HC3 errors | 1.77 | Elkhart, IN | 44 | | 0.851 | 0.416 | HC3 errors | 0.633 | El Paso, TX | 175 | | 2.08 | 0.935 | HC3 errors | 1.50 | Erie, PA | 65 | | 1.91 | 0.820 | HC3 errors | 1.36 | Lane, OR | 86 | | 2.13 | 1.46 | HC3 errors | 1.80 | Vanderburgh, IN | 88 | | 2.06 | 1.28 | HC3 errors | 1.67 | Cass, ND | 58 | | 1.65 | 0.765 | HC3 errors | 1.21 | Cumberland, NC | 107 | | 0.985 | 0.401 | HC3 errors | 0.693 | Benton, AR | 109 | | 1.57 | 1.07 | HC3 errors | 1.32 | Genesee, MI | 124 | | 1.62 | 0.646 | HC3 errors | 1.13 | Florence, SC | 52 | | 2.02 | 0.669 | HC3 errors | 1.34 | Lauderdale, AL | 40 | | 2.56 | −0.146 | HC3 errors | 1.21 | Larimer, CO | 76 | | 1.79 | 0.738 | HC3 errors | 1.27 | Sebastian, AR | 63 | | 1.96 | 1.20 | HC3 errors | 1.58 | Allen, IN | 100 | | 1.26 | 0.827 | HC3 errors | 1.04 | Fresno, CA | 218 | | 1.77 | 1.21 | HC3 errors | 1.49 | Alachua, FL | 60 | | 1.19 | 0.487 | HC3 errors | 0.840 | Hall, GA | 48 | | 1.26 | 0.142 | HC3 errors | 0.701 | Warren, NY | 42 | | 1.24 | 0.877 | HC3 errors | 1.06 | Kent, MI | 228 | | 1.53 | 0.618 | HC3 errors | 1.07 | Weld, CO | 69 | | 1.57 | 0.572 | HC3 errors | 1.07 | Brown, WI | 69 | | 1.64 | 1.20 | HC3 errors | 1.42 | Guilford, NC | 169 | | 1.36 | 0.988 | HC3 errors | 1.18 | Greenville, SC | 221 | | 1.26 | 0.390 | HC3 errors | 0.827 | Harrison, MS | 137 | | 1.98 | 1.13 | HC3 errors | 1.56 | Washington, MD | 65 | | 1.55 | 0.981 | HC3 errors | 1.27 | Dauphin, PA | 126 | | 1.29 | 0.997 | HC3 errors | 1.15 | Capitol, CT | 272 | | 1.66 | 0.607 | HC3 errors | 1.13 | Forrest, MS | 45 | | 1.36 | 0.395 | HC3 errors | 0.879 | Catawba, NC | 78 | | 1.52 | 0.392 | HC3 errors | 0.955 | Hawaii, HI | 43 | | 1.36 | 0.503 | HC3 errors | 0.930 | Beaufort, SC | 42 | | 1.51 | 0.360 | HC3 errors | 0.936 | Citrus, FL | 41 | | 1.13 | 0.623 | HC3 errors | 0.874 | Terrebonne, LA | 59 | | 0.892 | 0.758 | Clustered on counties | 0.825 | Harris, TX | 1,457 | | 2.12 | 0.348 | Clustered on counties | 1.24 | Cabell, WV | 102 | | 1.53 | 1.08 | HC3 errors | 1.30 | Madison, AL | 108 | | 1.48 | 1.18 | Clustered on counties | 1.33 | Marion, IN | 453 | | 1.59 | 0.656 | HC3 errors | 1.12 | Jackson, MI | 45 | | 1.50 | 1.00 | Clustered on counties | 1.25 | Hinds, MS | 149 | | 1.83 | 0.819 | HC3 errors | 1.32 | Madison, TN | 50 | | 1.53 | 1.23 | Clustered on counties | 1.38 | Duval, FL | 319 | | 1.47 | 0.562 | HC3 errors | 1.02 | Washington, TN | 53 | | 2.26 | 0.816 | HC3 errors | 1.54 | Jasper, MO | 42 | | 2.53 | 0.560 | HC3 errors | 1.54 | Maui, HI | 42 | | 1.55 | 0.897 | HC3 errors | 1.22 | Kalamazoo, MI | 63 | | 1.50 | 1.05 | Clustered on counties | 1.27 | Jackson, MO | 556 | | 1.21 | 0.656 | HC3 errors | 0.934 | Benton, WA | 63 | | 1.00 | 0.383 | HC3 errors | 0.694 | Bell, TX | 91 | | 2.04 | 0.991 | Clustered on counties | 1.51 | Sullivan, TN | 77 | | 1.88 | 0.315 | HC3 errors | 1.10 | Ulster, NY | 41 | | 1.59 | 1.29 | Clustered on counties | 1.44 | Knox, TN | 198 | | 1.44 | 0.826 | Clustered on counties | 1.13 | Lafayette, LA | 125 | | 1.98 | 0.909 | HC3 errors | 1.44 | Tippecanoe, IN | 49 | | 1.48 | 0.741 | HC3 errors | 1.11 | Calcasieu, LA | 52 | | 1.29 | 0.490 | HC3 errors | 0.892 | Mohave, AZ | 55 | | 1.51 | 0.881 | HC3 errors | 1.20 | Polk, FL | 162 | | 1.57 | 0.750 | HC3 errors | 1.16 | Lancaster, PA | 112 | | 1.33 | 0.912 | HC3 errors | 1.12 | Ingham, MI | 135 | | 1.34 | 0.641 | HC3 errors | 0.991 | Webb, TX | 61 | | 0.970 | −0.013 | HC3 errors | 0.478 | Doña Ana, NM | 57 | | 1.03 | 0.735 | HC3 errors | 0.885 | Clark, NV | 475 | | 1.53 | 0.543 | HC3 errors | 1.03 | Grafton, NH | 66 | | 1.84 | 0.989 | Clustered on counties | 1.41 | Fayette, KY | 124 | | 1.65 | 0.994 | HC3 errors | 1.32 | Lancaster, NE | 74 | | 1.82 | 0.949 | Clustered on counties | 1.38 | Pulaski, AR | 177 | | 1.98 | 0.429 | HC3 errors | 1.20 | Laurel, KY | 43 | | 1.02 | 0.470 | HC3 errors | 0.744 | Gregg, TX | 64 | | 1.45 | 1.15 | HC3 errors | 1.30 | Los Angeles, CA | 2,923 | | 1.73 | 1.29 | Clustered on counties | 1.51 | Jefferson, KY | 320 | | 1.25 | 0.097 | HC3 errors | 0.675 | Lubbock, TX | 97 | | 1.90 | 0.911 | Clustered on counties | 1.40 | Bedford, VA | 64 | | 1.68 | 1.12 | Clustered on counties | 1.40 | Bibb, GA | 64 | | 1.15 | 0.419 | HC3 errors | 0.782 | Dane, WI | 123 | | 1.55 | 0.681 | HC3 errors | 1.12 | Hillsborough, NH | 99 | | 0.888 | 0.374 | HC3 errors | 0.631 | Hidalgo, TX | 208 | | 1.83 | 0.570 | HC3 errors | 1.20 | Jackson, OR | 51 | | 1.45 | 1.12 | Clustered on counties | 1.29 | Shelby, TN | 316 | | 1.32 | 0.358 | HC3 errors | 0.839 | Merced, CA | 60 | | 0.922 | 0.725 | HC3 errors | 0.823 | Miami-Dade, FL | 1,377 | | 1.32 | 1.08 | HC3 errors | 1.20 | Milwaukee, WI | 374 | | 1.52 | 0.938 | Clustered on counties | 1.23 | Hennepin, MN | 847 | | 1.61 | 1.02 | HC3 errors | 1.31 | Mobile, AL | 128 | | 1.35 | 0.694 | HC3 errors | 1.02 | Stanislaus, CA | 111 | | 1.93 | 1.04 | HC3 errors | 1.49 | Ouachita, LA | 57 | | 2.14 | 1.11 | HC3 errors | 1.62 | Monroe, MI | 40 | | 1.49 | 0.964 | HC3 errors | 1.23 | Montgomery, AL | 94 | | 1.98 | 0.493 | HC3 errors | 1.24 | Skagit, WA | 41 | | 1.92 | 1.19 | HC3 errors | 1.56 | Muskegon, MI | 44 | | 1.15 | 0.593 | HC3 errors | 0.872 | Horry, SC | 110 | | 1.38 | 0.423 | HC3 errors | 0.902 | Collier, FL | 94 | | 1.55 | 0.985 | Clustered on counties | 1.27 | Davidson, TN | 384 | | 1.31 | 0.818 | HC3 errors | 1.06 | South Central Connecticut, CT | 128 | | 1.38 | 0.948 | Clustered on counties | 1.16 | Jefferson, LA | 379 | | 1.12 | 0.421 | Clustered on counties | 0.771 | Kings, NY | 4,563 | | 1.92 | 1.12 | HC3 errors | 1.52 | Berrien, MI | 51 | | 1.19 | 0.714 | HC3 errors | 0.953 | Sarasota, FL | 204 | | 1.66 | 0.818 | HC3 errors | 1.24 | Southeastern Connecticut, CT | 62 | | 1.27 | 0.541 | HC3 errors | 0.906 | Marion, FL | 77 | | 1.96 | 1.32 | HC3 errors | 1.64 | Davis, UT | 134 | | 1.49 | 1.11 | Clustered on counties | 1.30 | Oklahoma, OK | 380 | | 2.18 | 1.21 | HC3 errors | 1.69 | Thurston, WA | 60 | | 1.31 | 0.980 | Clustered on counties | 1.14 | Douglas, NE | 247 | | 1.03 | 0.689 | HC3 errors | 0.859 | Orange, FL | 460 | | 1.49 | 0.593 | HC3 errors | 1.04 | Ventura, CA | 182 | | 1.47 | 1.01 | HC3 errors | 1.24 | Brevard, FL | 140 | | 1.23 | 0.379 | HC3 errors | 0.803 | Bay, FL | 46 | | 1.73 | 1.17 | HC3 errors | 1.45 | Escambia, FL | 106 | | 1.41 | 1.07 | Clustered on counties | 1.24 | Peoria, IL | 104 | | 1.27 | 1.13 | Clustered on counties | 1.20 | Philadelphia, PA | 1,455 | | 0.989 | 0.800 | HC3 errors | 0.894 | Maricopa, AZ | 948 | | 1.21 | 0.893 | Clustered on counties | 1.05 | Allegheny, PA | 674 | | 1.45 | 0.677 | HC3 errors | 1.06 | Cumberland, ME | 127 | | 1.51 | 1.21 | Clustered on counties | 1.36 | Multnomah, OR | 537 | | 1.67 | 1.00 | HC3 errors | 1.34 | St. Lucie, FL | 102 | | 2.22 | 1.04 | HC3 errors | 1.63 | Schuylkill, PA | 40 | | 1.02 | 0.313 | HC3 errors | 0.666 | Orange, NY | 162 | | 1.26 | 0.223 | HC3 errors | 0.740 | Yavapai, AZ | 70 | | 1.46 | 1.07 | Clustered on counties | 1.26 | Providence, RI | 357 | | 1.53 | 0.768 | HC3 errors | 1.15 | Utah, UT | 140 | | 1.79 | 1.14 | HC3 errors | 1.47 | Pueblo, CO | 55 | | 1.58 | 0.643 | HC3 errors | 1.11 | Charlotte, FL | 40 | | 1.42 | 0.528 | HC3 errors | 0.976 | Racine, WI | 41 | | 1.04 | 0.745 | HC3 errors | 0.890 | Wake, NC | 268 | | 1.39 | 0.967 | HC3 errors | 1.18 | Berks, PA | 103 | | 1.73 | 0.732 | HC3 errors | 1.23 | Shasta, CA | 49 | | 1.67 | 0.812 | HC3 errors | 1.24 | Washoe, NV | 117 | | 1.36 | 1.12 | Clustered on counties | 1.24 | Chesterfield, VA | 298 | | 1.15 | 0.890 | HC3 errors | 1.02 | Riverside, CA | 939 | | 1.82 | 0.799 | Clustered on counties | 1.31 | Roanoke, VA | 75 | | 1.41 | 0.373 | HC3 errors | 0.892 | Olmsted, MN | 52 | | 1.39 | 1.05 | Clustered on counties | 1.22 | Monroe, NY | 288 | | 1.91 | 1.01 | HC3 errors | 1.46 | Winnebago, IL | 88 | | 1.61 | 1.27 | HC3 errors | 1.44 | Sacramento, CA | 519 | | 2.09 | 1.35 | HC3 errors | 1.72 | Saginaw, MI | 59 | | 1.86 | 0.503 | HC3 errors | 1.18 | Stearns, MN | 43 | | 1.43 | 1.07 | Clustered on counties | 1.25 | St. Louis, MO | 669 | | 2.15 | 0.667 | HC3 errors | 1.41 | Marion, OR | 78 | | 1.58 | 0.320 | HC3 errors | 0.950 | Monterey, CA | 96 | | 1.21 | 0.759 | HC3 errors | 0.986 | Sussex, DE | 105 | | 1.51 | 0.894 | HC3 errors | 1.20 | Salt Lake, UT | 247 | | 1.05 | 0.647 | Clustered on counties | 0.849 | Bexar, TX | 453 | | 1.34 | 0.826 | HC3 errors | 1.08 | San Diego, CA | 681 | | 3.04 | 1.67 | Clustered on counties | 2.36 | Alameda, CA | 1,044 | | 1.09 | 0.161 | HC3 errors | 0.624 | Santa Clara, CA | 405 | | 1.48 | −0.040 | HC3 errors | 0.721 | San Luis Obispo, CA | 61 | | 1.73 | −0.548 | HC3 errors | 0.592 | Santa Cruz, CA | 63 | | 1.03 | 0.374 | HC3 errors | 0.703 | Santa Fe, NM | 52 | | 1.64 | 0.787 | HC3 errors | 1.22 | Santa Barbara, CA | 98 | | 2.12 | 0.547 | HC3 errors | 1.34 | Sonoma, CA | 116 | | 1.28 | 0.806 | HC3 errors | 1.04 | Chatham, GA | 101 | | 1.64 | 1.08 | HC3 errors | 1.36 | Luzerne, PA | 162 | | 1.79 | 1.34 | HC3 errors | 1.56 | King, WA | 829 | | 1.27 | 0.555 | HC3 errors | 0.914 | Indian River, FL | 41 | | 1.51 | 1.01 | HC3 errors | 1.26 | Caddo, LA | 114 | | 1.87 | 0.709 | HC3 errors | 1.29 | Minnehaha, SD | 60 | | 1.51 | 1.05 | HC3 errors | 1.28 | St. Joseph, IN | 92 | | 1.63 | 0.905 | HC3 errors | 1.27 | Spartanburg, SC | 85 | | 1.84 | 1.26 | HC3 errors | 1.55 | Spokane, WA | 140 | | 2.00 | 1.14 | HC3 errors | 1.57 | Sangamon, IL | 56 | | 1.67 | 1.27 | HC3 errors | 1.47 | Hampden, MA | 151 | | 2.08 | 0.848 | Clustered on counties | 1.46 | Greene, MO | 111 | | 2.70 | 1.57 | HC3 errors | 2.13 | Clark, OH | 41 | | 1.76 | 1.15 | HC3 errors | 1.46 | San Joaquin, CA | 169 | | 1.43 | 0.879 | HC3 errors | 1.15 | Onondaga, NY | 183 | | 1.22 | 0.803 | HC3 errors | 1.01 | Leon, FL | 82 | | 1.10 | 0.888 | HC3 errors | 0.995 | Hillsborough, FL | 692 | | 2.40 | 1.28 | Clustered on counties | 1.84 | Vigo, IN | 53 | | 1.64 | 0.254 | HC3 errors | 0.949 | Bowie, TX | 42 | | 1.42 | 1.05 | HC3 errors | 1.23 | Lucas, OH | 213 | | 1.32 | 1.12 | Clustered on counties | 1.22 | Shawnee, KS | 59 | | 1.42 | 0.785 | HC3 errors | 1.10 | Grand Traverse, MI | 43 | | 1.58 | 1.11 | HC3 errors | 1.34 | Mercer, NJ | 79 | | 1.30 | 0.873 | HC3 errors | 1.08 | Pima, AZ | 246 | | 1.48 | 0.994 | Clustered on counties | 1.24 | Tulsa, OK | 304 | | 1.84 | 0.561 | HC3 errors | 1.20 | Lee, MS | 40 | | 1.28 | 0.561 | HC3 errors | 0.920 | Tuscaloosa, AL | 69 | | 1.45 | 0.295 | HC3 errors | 0.875 | Smith, TX | 53 | | 1.57 | 0.764 | HC3 errors | 1.16 | Honolulu, HI | 286 | | 2.16 | 1.08 | HC3 errors | 1.62 | Oneida, NY | 83 | | 2.86 | 1.47 | HC3 errors | 2.16 | Solano, CA | 96 | | 1.68 | 1.04 | Clustered on counties | 1.36 | Virginia Beach, VA | 436 | | 1.44 | 0.731 | HC3 errors | 1.08 | Tulare, CA | 101 | | 1.71 | 0.963 | HC3 errors | 1.34 | McLennan, TX | 55 | | 1.37 | 0.235 | HC3 errors | 0.804 | Houston, GA | 44 | | 1.34 | 0.861 | Clustered on counties | 1.10 | Fairfax, VA | 1,350 | | 1.34 | 0.879 | HC3 errors | 1.11 | Naugatuck Valley, CT | 95 | | 1.67 | 0.512 | HC3 errors | 1.09 | Black Hawk, IA | 46 | | 2.51 | 0.881 | HC3 errors | 1.69 | Marathon, WI | 41 | | 2.19 | 1.04 | HC3 errors | 1.61 | Belmont, OH | 48 | | 1.51 | 1.07 | HC3 errors | 1.29 | Sedgwick, KS | 164 | | 2.15 | 0.833 | HC3 errors | 1.49 | Wichita, TX | 44 | | 1.27 | 0.688 | HC3 errors | 0.978 | New Hanover, NC | 61 | | 1.59 | 0.891 | Clustered on counties | 1.24 | Forsyth, NC | 161 | | 1.24 | 0.783 | HC3 errors | 1.01 | Worcester, MA | 184 | | 1.41 | 0.812 | HC3 errors | 1.11 | Yakima, WA | 56 | | 1.75 | 1.10 | HC3 errors | 1.43 | York, PA | 105 | | 2.14 | 1.27 | HC3 errors | 1.70 | Mahoning, OH | 155 | | 0.485 | −0.212 | HC3 errors | 0.137 | Yuma, AZ | 60 | #### Table 6.2. Distribution Metro slopes cluster around a median of 1.20 years per ten-point step, with few metros at either end Number of metros by slope of life expectancy on the ADI, years lower per ten-point step, in bins of equal width | metros | series | x0 | x1 | | ---: | --- | ---: | ---: | | 1 | Estimated slope | 0 | 0.200 | | 0 | Estimated slope | 0.200 | 0.400 | | 3 | Estimated slope | 0.400 | 0.600 | | 17 | Estimated slope | 0.600 | 0.800 | | 48 | Estimated slope | 0.800 | 1 | | 63 | Estimated slope | 1 | 1.20 | | 76 | Estimated slope | 1.20 | 1.40 | | 38 | Estimated slope | 1.40 | 1.60 | | 14 | Estimated slope | 1.60 | 1.80 | | 3 | Estimated slope | 1.80 | 2 | | 2 | Estimated slope | 2 | 2.20 | | 2 | Estimated slope | 2.20 | 2.40 | | 0 | Estimated slope | 2.40 | 2.60 | | 0 | Estimated slope | 2.60 | 2.80 | Source: USALEEP life expectancy, 2010-2015; Area Deprivation Index, 2023; ACS 2019-2023; population-weighted regression slopes, modeled estimates Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/metro_slopes.json ### Table 7. Life expectancy at birth is steadily worse toward the more deprived end under the ADI and under each of the three other rankings Life expectancy at birth (years) by tenth of tracts ranked four ways, over the 71,771 tracts that have all four rankings | bin | conf_high | conf_low | estimate | n_units | ranking | | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | --- | | 1 | 82.56 | 82.11 | 82.33 | 7,179 | Area Deprivation Index | | 2 | 81.18 | 80.73 | 80.93 | 7,168 | Area Deprivation Index | | 3 | 80.50 | 80.11 | 80.30 | 7,220 | Area Deprivation Index | | 4 | 79.87 | 79.54 | 79.71 | 7,108 | Area Deprivation Index | | 5 | 79.25 | 78.93 | 79.09 | 7,229 | Area Deprivation Index | | 6 | 78.54 | 78.25 | 78.40 | 7,042 | Area Deprivation Index | | 7 | 77.83 | 77.56 | 77.70 | 7,298 | Area Deprivation Index | | 8 | 77.05 | 76.77 | 76.90 | 7,109 | Area Deprivation Index | | 9 | 76.04 | 75.76 | 75.90 | 7,212 | Area Deprivation Index | | 10 | 74.34 | 73.79 | 74.04 | 7,206 | Area Deprivation Index | | 1 | 82.54 | 82.16 | 82.37 | 7,177 | Standardized index | | 2 | 81.23 | 80.97 | 81.10 | 7,177 | Standardized index | | 3 | 80.45 | 80.20 | 80.32 | 7,177 | Standardized index | | 4 | 79.73 | 79.48 | 79.61 | 7,177 | Standardized index | | 5 | 79.12 | 78.84 | 78.97 | 7,177 | Standardized index | | 6 | 78.43 | 78.09 | 78.26 | 7,177 | Standardized index | | 7 | 77.84 | 77.46 | 77.65 | 7,177 | Standardized index | | 8 | 77.15 | 76.65 | 76.89 | 7,177 | Standardized index | | 9 | 76.32 | 75.72 | 76.00 | 7,177 | Standardized index | | 10 | 75.14 | 74.24 | 74.69 | 7,178 | Standardized index | | 1 | 82.43 | 82.00 | 82.23 | 7,177 | Median household income | | 2 | 81.08 | 80.82 | 80.95 | 7,176 | Median household income | | 3 | 80.39 | 80.13 | 80.26 | 7,177 | Median household income | | 4 | 79.77 | 79.49 | 79.63 | 7,176 | Median household income | | 5 | 79.12 | 78.85 | 78.99 | 7,179 | Median household income | | 6 | 78.53 | 78.23 | 78.38 | 7,178 | Median household income | | 7 | 77.84 | 77.56 | 77.70 | 7,176 | Median household income | | 8 | 77.16 | 76.83 | 76.99 | 7,177 | Median household income | | 9 | 76.01 | 75.62 | 75.81 | 7,177 | Median household income | | 10 | 74.44 | 73.92 | 74.18 | 7,178 | Median household income | | 1 | 82.51 | 82.02 | 82.27 | 7,178 | Bachelor's degree share | | 2 | 81.27 | 80.92 | 81.09 | 7,181 | Bachelor's degree share | | 3 | 80.47 | 80.15 | 80.31 | 7,166 | Bachelor's degree share | | 4 | 79.73 | 79.42 | 79.57 | 7,182 | Bachelor's degree share | | 5 | 78.99 | 78.68 | 78.84 | 7,185 | Bachelor's degree share | | 6 | 78.40 | 78.05 | 78.22 | 7,171 | Bachelor's degree share | | 7 | 77.82 | 77.45 | 77.63 | 7,175 | Bachelor's degree share | | 8 | 77.19 | 76.81 | 77.00 | 7,178 | Bachelor's degree share | | 9 | 76.49 | 76.01 | 76.24 | 7,180 | Bachelor's degree share | | 10 | 75.71 | 74.93 | 75.29 | 7,175 | Bachelor's degree share | Note: Least and most deprived tenth: ADI 82.3 and 74.0, rank correlation −1.00; standardized index 82.4 and 74.7, −1.00; median household income 82.2 and 74.2, −1.00; bachelor's degree share 82.3 and 75.3, −1.00. Note: The standardized index applies the ADI's coefficients to its measures after standardizing each one, so home value and income carry less weight than in the ADI. Income and degree share are single census measures, each ranked from the highest value to the lowest. Source: USALEEP life expectancy at birth, 2010-2015, and Area Deprivation Index, 2023; population-weighted (ACS 2019-2023 tract population), modeled estimates; ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 tract tables (B19013, B15003 and the 15 rebuilt ADI measures) Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/alt_rankings.json ### Table 8. In all 49 states whose tracts reach across at least 4 national tenths, life expectancy is lower in the state's most deprived tenth than in its least deprived tenth Life expectancy at birth by national tenth of tracts by ADI, within each state, population-weighted, deaths in 2010 to 2015; the faint line is all states together | bin | conf_high | conf_low | estimate | n_units | state | suppressed | | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | --- | --- | | 1 | 82.56 | 82.11 | 82.33 | 7,179 | US | no | | 2 | 81.18 | 80.73 | 80.93 | 7,168 | US | no | | 3 | 80.50 | 80.11 | 80.30 | 7,220 | US | no | | 4 | 79.87 | 79.54 | 79.71 | 7,108 | US | no | | 5 | 79.25 | 78.93 | 79.09 | 7,229 | US | no | | 6 | 78.54 | 78.25 | 78.40 | 7,042 | US | no | | 7 | 77.83 | 77.56 | 77.70 | 7,298 | US | no | | 8 | 77.05 | 76.77 | 76.90 | 7,109 | US | no | | 9 | 76.04 | 75.76 | 75.90 | 7,212 | US | no | | 10 | 74.34 | 73.79 | 74.04 | 7,206 | US | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 1 | AK | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 10 | AK | yes | | 3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 18 | AK | yes | | 4 | 81.01 | 79.04 | 79.57 | 36 | AK | no | | 5 | 80.76 | 77.98 | 79.21 | 44 | AK | no | | 6 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 18 | AK | yes | | 7 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 9 | AK | yes | | 8 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 7 | AK | yes | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 2 | AK | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 8 | AK | yes | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 7 | AL | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 13 | AL | yes | | 3 | 81.45 | 80.28 | 80.93 | 34 | AL | no | | 4 | 80.01 | 78.94 | 79.60 | 50 | AL | no | | 5 | 78.81 | 77.59 | 78.27 | 83 | AL | no | | 6 | 77.71 | 76.26 | 76.97 | 106 | AL | no | | 7 | 76.92 | 75.32 | 76.12 | 149 | AL | no | | 8 | 75.76 | 74.96 | 75.35 | 181 | AL | no | | 9 | 74.74 | 73.87 | 74.29 | 254 | AL | no | | 10 | 73.36 | 72.04 | 72.61 | 320 | AL | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 1 | AR | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 4 | AR | yes | | 3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 15 | AR | yes | | 4 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 17 | AR | yes | | 5 | 79.27 | 77.41 | 78.50 | 43 | AR | no | | 6 | 78.94 | 77 | 77.99 | 46 | AR | no | | 7 | 77.32 | 76.41 | 76.87 | 84 | AR | no | | 8 | 76.52 | 75.65 | 76.07 | 125 | AR | no | | 9 | 75.86 | 74.85 | 75.32 | 165 | AR | no | | 10 | 74.62 | 73.38 | 73.91 | 241 | AR | no | | 1 | 87.50 | 82.79 | 82.90 | 60 | AZ | no | | 2 | 82.55 | 80.51 | 80.77 | 171 | AZ | no | | 3 | 81.91 | 79.60 | 80.08 | 205 | AZ | no | | 4 | 81.01 | 78.80 | 79.30 | 220 | AZ | no | | 5 | 79.90 | 77.36 | 77.92 | 197 | AZ | no | | 6 | 78.46 | 76.88 | 77.21 | 157 | AZ | no | | 7 | 79.09 | 76.89 | 77.43 | 134 | AZ | no | | 8 | 77.68 | 75.94 | 76.59 | 105 | AZ | no | | 9 | 76.48 | 74.69 | 75.42 | 82 | AZ | no | | 10 | 77.48 | 74.77 | 76.04 | 71 | AZ | no | | 1 | 82.49 | 82.04 | 82.24 | 3,373 | CA | no | | 2 | 80.65 | 80.15 | 80.33 | 2,033 | CA | no | | 3 | 79.57 | 78.81 | 79.09 | 1,064 | CA | no | | 4 | 78.81 | 77.83 | 78.22 | 619 | CA | no | | 5 | 78.10 | 76.73 | 77.31 | 387 | CA | no | | 6 | 77.28 | 75.98 | 76.67 | 256 | CA | no | | 7 | 76.97 | 75.78 | 76.37 | 187 | CA | no | | 8 | 76.95 | 75.08 | 75.83 | 100 | CA | no | | 9 | 77.19 | 74.04 | 75.19 | 40 | CA | no | | 10 | 77.75 | 74.74 | 76.42 | 33 | CA | no | | 1 | 82.90 | 81.64 | 82.18 | 182 | CO | no | | 2 | 81.84 | 80.19 | 81 | 304 | CO | no | | 3 | 80.51 | 78.92 | 79.57 | 258 | CO | no | | 4 | 79.43 | 78 | 78.64 | 183 | CO | no | | 5 | 79.13 | 77.34 | 77.96 | 97 | CO | no | | 6 | 79.15 | 75.72 | 76.96 | 52 | CO | no | | 7 | 78.86 | 76.27 | 77.31 | 50 | CO | no | | 8 | 78.56 | 75.81 | 76.96 | 27 | CO | no | | 9 | 79.04 | 74.10 | 75.82 | 29 | CO | no | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 13 | CO | yes | | 1 | n/a | n/a | 84.03 | 62 | CT | no | | 2 | n/a | n/a | 82.80 | 64 | CT | no | | 3 | n/a | n/a | 82 | 117 | CT | no | | 4 | n/a | n/a | 80.81 | 122 | CT | no | | 5 | n/a | n/a | 80.19 | 122 | CT | no | | 6 | n/a | n/a | 79.04 | 93 | CT | no | | 7 | n/a | n/a | 77.57 | 78 | CT | no | | 8 | n/a | n/a | 76.60 | 70 | CT | no | | 9 | n/a | n/a | 76.22 | 24 | CT | no | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 5 | CT | yes | | 1 | n/a | n/a | 79.57 | 81 | DC | no | | 2 | n/a | n/a | 77.47 | 41 | DC | no | | 3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 18 | DC | yes | | 4 | n/a | n/a | 71.99 | 20 | DC | no | | 5 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 5 | DC | yes | | 6 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 1 | DC | yes | | 7 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | DC | yes | | 8 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | DC | yes | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | DC | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | DC | yes | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 5 | DE | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 10 | DE | yes | | 3 | n/a | n/a | 80.41 | 28 | DE | no | | 4 | n/a | n/a | 79.06 | 33 | DE | no | | 5 | n/a | n/a | 77.84 | 46 | DE | no | | 6 | n/a | n/a | 77.45 | 32 | DE | no | | 7 | n/a | n/a | 76.45 | 35 | DE | no | | 8 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 11 | DE | yes | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 4 | DE | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 5 | DE | yes | | 1 | 83.56 | 81.85 | 82.87 | 162 | FL | no | | 2 | 82.19 | 81.28 | 81.80 | 352 | FL | no | | 3 | 81.52 | 80.65 | 81.08 | 519 | FL | no | | 4 | 80.38 | 79.63 | 80.04 | 655 | FL | no | | 5 | 79.28 | 78.62 | 78.95 | 644 | FL | no | | 6 | 78.65 | 77.72 | 78.18 | 592 | FL | no | | 7 | 77.59 | 76.59 | 77.07 | 498 | FL | no | | 8 | 76.62 | 75.26 | 75.93 | 352 | FL | no | | 9 | 76.03 | 74.43 | 75.22 | 278 | FL | no | | 10 | 75.36 | 72.97 | 74.24 | 205 | FL | no | | 1 | 82.33 | 80.57 | 81.45 | 52 | GA | no | | 2 | 81.23 | 80.48 | 80.91 | 133 | GA | no | | 3 | 80.53 | 79.44 | 79.92 | 189 | GA | no | | 4 | 79.64 | 78.59 | 79.21 | 227 | GA | no | | 5 | 78.27 | 77.21 | 77.79 | 288 | GA | no | | 6 | 77.48 | 76.62 | 77.03 | 306 | GA | no | | 7 | 76.66 | 76.01 | 76.32 | 293 | GA | no | | 8 | 76.13 | 75.33 | 75.72 | 261 | GA | no | | 9 | 75.18 | 74.45 | 74.81 | 275 | GA | no | | 10 | 74.13 | 73.13 | 73.58 | 260 | GA | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | 82.37 | 213 | HI | no | | 2 | n/a | n/a | 80.52 | 75 | HI | no | | 3 | n/a | n/a | 81.22 | 43 | HI | no | | 4 | n/a | n/a | 79.69 | 23 | HI | no | | 5 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 6 | HI | yes | | 6 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 2 | HI | yes | | 7 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 5 | HI | yes | | 8 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | HI | yes | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 1 | HI | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | HI | yes | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | IA | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 3 | IA | yes | | 3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 17 | IA | yes | | 4 | 82.42 | 80.91 | 81.53 | 46 | IA | no | | 5 | 82.85 | 80.67 | 81.56 | 69 | IA | no | | 6 | 82.33 | 80.78 | 81.46 | 98 | IA | no | | 7 | 80.94 | 79.85 | 80.38 | 123 | IA | no | | 8 | 79.40 | 78.19 | 78.78 | 175 | IA | no | | 9 | 78.20 | 77.10 | 77.61 | 199 | IA | no | | 10 | 76.99 | 75.46 | 76.14 | 104 | IA | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 18 | ID | yes | | 2 | 82.38 | 80.27 | 81.38 | 42 | ID | no | | 3 | 80.86 | 79.43 | 80.52 | 83 | ID | no | | 4 | 80.17 | 78.64 | 79.56 | 83 | ID | no | | 5 | 80.23 | 78.83 | 79.42 | 69 | ID | no | | 6 | 79.38 | 77.87 | 78.47 | 53 | ID | no | | 7 | 79.24 | 76.90 | 77.88 | 42 | ID | no | | 8 | 77.86 | 75.07 | 76.12 | 24 | ID | no | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 3 | ID | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | ID | yes | | 1 | 84.36 | 81.93 | 82.83 | 83 | IL | no | | 2 | 82.95 | 81.38 | 81.84 | 163 | IL | no | | 3 | 82.29 | 80.91 | 81.39 | 209 | IL | no | | 4 | 81.17 | 80.11 | 80.37 | 296 | IL | no | | 5 | 80.82 | 79.37 | 79.86 | 354 | IL | no | | 6 | 80.04 | 78.38 | 78.86 | 308 | IL | no | | 7 | 79.63 | 77.49 | 78.18 | 334 | IL | no | | 8 | 78.90 | 76.64 | 77.66 | 339 | IL | no | | 9 | 77.95 | 75.54 | 76.67 | 377 | IL | no | | 10 | 75.03 | 74.03 | 74.46 | 375 | IL | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 3 | IN | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 14 | IN | yes | | 3 | 81.62 | 80.16 | 80.94 | 44 | IN | no | | 4 | 80.88 | 78.48 | 79.77 | 51 | IN | no | | 5 | 80.87 | 79.31 | 80.07 | 138 | IN | no | | 6 | 79.91 | 78.91 | 79.38 | 184 | IN | no | | 7 | 78.78 | 77.64 | 78.11 | 233 | IN | no | | 8 | 78.09 | 76.88 | 77.45 | 288 | IN | no | | 9 | 76.49 | 75.19 | 75.74 | 273 | IN | no | | 10 | 73.51 | 72.04 | 72.76 | 290 | IN | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 2 | KS | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 15 | KS | yes | | 3 | 82.74 | 80.32 | 81.92 | 35 | KS | no | | 4 | 81.66 | 80.63 | 81.06 | 50 | KS | no | | 5 | 80.83 | 79.64 | 80.33 | 60 | KS | no | | 6 | 80.57 | 78.87 | 79.56 | 61 | KS | no | | 7 | 80.25 | 79.02 | 79.55 | 85 | KS | no | | 8 | 78.68 | 77.45 | 78.02 | 97 | KS | no | | 9 | 77.80 | 76.72 | 77.17 | 139 | KS | no | | 10 | 76.77 | 74.63 | 75.45 | 193 | KS | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 1 | KY | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 9 | KY | yes | | 3 | 82.78 | 78.73 | 81.68 | 34 | KY | no | | 4 | 80.54 | 78.39 | 79.79 | 51 | KY | no | | 5 | 79.74 | 78.68 | 79.29 | 75 | KY | no | | 6 | 78.42 | 77.56 | 77.95 | 114 | KY | no | | 7 | 77.17 | 76.35 | 76.78 | 134 | KY | no | | 8 | 75.95 | 75.30 | 75.60 | 185 | KY | no | | 9 | 74.94 | 74.12 | 74.52 | 258 | KY | no | | 10 | 73.59 | 72.49 | 73.04 | 286 | KY | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 12 | LA | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 18 | LA | yes | | 3 | 81.39 | 78.41 | 79.97 | 43 | LA | no | | 4 | 80.15 | 78.59 | 79.46 | 55 | LA | no | | 5 | 78.94 | 77.63 | 78.38 | 77 | LA | no | | 6 | 78.29 | 76.99 | 77.61 | 104 | LA | no | | 7 | 76.95 | 75.95 | 76.42 | 176 | LA | no | | 8 | 75.97 | 74.99 | 75.44 | 170 | LA | no | | 9 | 75.14 | 74.11 | 74.59 | 190 | LA | no | | 10 | 73.82 | 72.59 | 73.17 | 223 | LA | no | | 1 | 83.32 | 81.35 | 82.72 | 321 | MA | no | | 2 | 81.58 | 80.34 | 81.01 | 343 | MA | no | | 3 | 80.82 | 79.88 | 80.32 | 292 | MA | no | | 4 | 80.63 | 78.74 | 79.61 | 182 | MA | no | | 5 | 80.16 | 77.34 | 78.50 | 104 | MA | no | | 6 | 79.66 | 77.14 | 78.34 | 71 | MA | no | | 7 | 78.21 | 77.12 | 77.45 | 48 | MA | no | | 8 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 19 | MA | yes | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 8 | MA | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 1 | MA | yes | | 1 | 84.55 | 81.55 | 83.91 | 110 | MD | no | | 2 | 82.73 | 80.68 | 81.78 | 195 | MD | no | | 3 | 80.90 | 79.81 | 80.41 | 263 | MD | no | | 4 | 79.95 | 78.71 | 79.43 | 225 | MD | no | | 5 | 78.87 | 77.45 | 78.15 | 172 | MD | no | | 6 | 78.30 | 76.30 | 77.06 | 104 | MD | no | | 7 | 76.86 | 73.95 | 75.48 | 59 | MD | no | | 8 | 75.45 | 73.64 | 74.17 | 66 | MD | no | | 9 | 76.06 | 71.74 | 73.34 | 35 | MD | no | | 10 | 74.38 | 69.18 | 70.28 | 42 | MD | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 4 | ME | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 19 | ME | yes | | 3 | 81.52 | 80.06 | 80.52 | 31 | ME | no | | 4 | 82.03 | 78.74 | 79.37 | 34 | ME | no | | 5 | 79.75 | 78.25 | 78.89 | 41 | ME | no | | 6 | 79.92 | 77.77 | 78.76 | 49 | ME | no | | 7 | 78.66 | 77.04 | 77.78 | 39 | ME | no | | 8 | 77.72 | 76.49 | 77 | 43 | ME | no | | 9 | 77.98 | 75.74 | 77.03 | 44 | ME | no | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 15 | ME | yes | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 14 | MI | yes | | 2 | 84.40 | 82.09 | 82.67 | 40 | MI | no | | 3 | 81.92 | 81.10 | 81.46 | 109 | MI | no | | 4 | 81.46 | 80.45 | 80.93 | 195 | MI | no | | 5 | 80.80 | 79.44 | 80.02 | 225 | MI | no | | 6 | 79.70 | 78.86 | 79.23 | 304 | MI | no | | 7 | 78.89 | 77.83 | 78.26 | 359 | MI | no | | 8 | 78.23 | 77.21 | 77.65 | 377 | MI | no | | 9 | 77.16 | 75.56 | 76.28 | 391 | MI | no | | 10 | 74.83 | 72.72 | 73.36 | 451 | MI | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 14 | MN | yes | | 2 | 83.49 | 81.98 | 83.10 | 71 | MN | no | | 3 | 82.39 | 81.66 | 82.04 | 152 | MN | no | | 4 | 82.21 | 81.36 | 81.71 | 230 | MN | no | | 5 | 81.88 | 80.31 | 80.92 | 266 | MN | no | | 6 | 80.72 | 78.97 | 79.71 | 201 | MN | no | | 7 | 80.42 | 77.89 | 78.99 | 175 | MN | no | | 8 | 80.30 | 78.89 | 79.55 | 142 | MN | no | | 9 | 79.47 | 77.47 | 78.40 | 78 | MN | no | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 17 | MN | yes | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 5 | MO | yes | | 2 | 83.04 | 81.12 | 81.69 | 26 | MO | no | | 3 | 82.38 | 80.07 | 81.58 | 52 | MO | no | | 4 | 81.60 | 80.05 | 80.98 | 93 | MO | no | | 5 | 80.31 | 79.08 | 79.82 | 136 | MO | no | | 6 | 79.09 | 77.97 | 78.62 | 165 | MO | no | | 7 | 78.46 | 77.31 | 77.84 | 233 | MO | no | | 8 | 77.31 | 76.47 | 76.87 | 249 | MO | no | | 9 | 76.19 | 75.14 | 75.68 | 257 | MO | no | | 10 | 74.27 | 72.35 | 73.22 | 258 | MO | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 1 | MS | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 2 | MS | yes | | 3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 5 | MS | yes | | 4 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 16 | MS | yes | | 5 | 80.41 | 78.28 | 79.51 | 30 | MS | no | | 6 | 79.08 | 76.57 | 77.71 | 58 | MS | no | | 7 | 77.88 | 76.53 | 77.29 | 66 | MS | no | | 8 | 76.58 | 75.30 | 75.98 | 105 | MS | no | | 9 | 75.21 | 74.31 | 74.76 | 161 | MS | no | | 10 | 74.41 | 73.46 | 73.92 | 277 | MS | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 7 | MT | yes | | 2 | 81.50 | 80.07 | 80.98 | 23 | MT | no | | 3 | 81.11 | 79.91 | 80.39 | 34 | MT | no | | 4 | 80.45 | 79.19 | 79.65 | 46 | MT | no | | 5 | 80.20 | 78.37 | 79.18 | 50 | MT | no | | 6 | 80.21 | 77.86 | 78.84 | 35 | MT | no | | 7 | 79.32 | 76.27 | 77.68 | 32 | MT | no | | 8 | 78.02 | 75.90 | 76.62 | 35 | MT | no | | 9 | 76.97 | 73.49 | 75.02 | 23 | MT | no | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 7 | MT | yes | | 1 | 82.71 | 81.42 | 81.96 | 44 | NC | no | | 2 | 81.93 | 80.85 | 81.47 | 107 | NC | no | | 3 | 80.52 | 79.53 | 80.14 | 194 | NC | no | | 4 | 80.39 | 79.63 | 80.05 | 198 | NC | no | | 5 | 79.24 | 78.38 | 78.84 | 245 | NC | no | | 6 | 78.55 | 77.71 | 78.14 | 257 | NC | no | | 7 | 77.42 | 76.71 | 77.02 | 321 | NC | no | | 8 | 76.65 | 75.93 | 76.30 | 362 | NC | no | | 9 | 75.99 | 75.32 | 75.66 | 317 | NC | no | | 10 | 74.62 | 73.58 | 74.08 | 243 | NC | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | ND | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | ND | yes | | 3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 9 | ND | yes | | 4 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 19 | ND | yes | | 5 | 81.93 | 80.34 | 81.29 | 31 | ND | no | | 6 | 81.57 | 79.28 | 80.49 | 33 | ND | no | | 7 | 79.32 | 77.13 | 78.44 | 36 | ND | no | | 8 | 79.35 | 77.08 | 78.16 | 28 | ND | no | | 9 | 80.02 | 77.82 | 78.92 | 40 | ND | no | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 13 | ND | yes | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 1 | NE | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 4 | NE | yes | | 3 | 82.98 | 80.72 | 81.26 | 25 | NE | no | | 4 | 82.22 | 80.41 | 81.11 | 44 | NE | no | | 5 | 82.88 | 80.34 | 81.24 | 42 | NE | no | | 6 | 81.22 | 79.95 | 80.50 | 61 | NE | no | | 7 | 79.89 | 78.45 | 79.03 | 81 | NE | no | | 8 | 79.65 | 77.83 | 78.63 | 102 | NE | no | | 9 | 79.04 | 76.52 | 77.54 | 96 | NE | no | | 10 | 78.38 | 73.43 | 75.21 | 42 | NE | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 10 | NH | yes | | 2 | 81.89 | 80.34 | 80.95 | 28 | NH | no | | 3 | 81.11 | 80.11 | 80.57 | 71 | NH | no | | 4 | 82.85 | 79.84 | 80.80 | 66 | NH | no | | 5 | 81.77 | 79.12 | 80.11 | 60 | NH | no | | 6 | 80.26 | 77.22 | 78.48 | 43 | NH | no | | 7 | 78.38 | 76.38 | 77.34 | 24 | NH | no | | 8 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 10 | NH | yes | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 3 | NH | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 1 | NH | yes | | 1 | 83.66 | 82.15 | 83.05 | 206 | NJ | no | | 2 | 82.40 | 80.87 | 81.67 | 325 | NJ | no | | 3 | 81.15 | 80.17 | 80.68 | 406 | NJ | no | | 4 | 79.92 | 79.19 | 79.52 | 334 | NJ | no | | 5 | 78.82 | 77.68 | 78.24 | 248 | NJ | no | | 6 | 78.02 | 76.09 | 77.06 | 135 | NJ | no | | 7 | 78.01 | 76.40 | 77.21 | 96 | NJ | no | | 8 | 76.75 | 75.07 | 75.99 | 43 | NJ | no | | 9 | 79.07 | 74.79 | 76.16 | 25 | NJ | no | | 10 | 74.11 | 71.71 | 72.80 | 24 | NJ | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 9 | NM | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 16 | NM | yes | | 3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 19 | NM | yes | | 4 | 82.54 | 79.45 | 81.03 | 36 | NM | no | | 5 | 81.14 | 79.26 | 80.07 | 61 | NM | no | | 6 | 80.03 | 78.58 | 79.18 | 57 | NM | no | | 7 | 80.18 | 77.52 | 78.44 | 62 | NM | no | | 8 | 79.77 | 76.79 | 77.80 | 75 | NM | no | | 9 | 77.80 | 76.17 | 76.99 | 73 | NM | no | | 10 | 77.61 | 75.48 | 76.43 | 85 | NM | no | | 1 | 82.12 | 79.81 | 81 | 37 | NV | no | | 2 | 81.09 | 79.53 | 80.43 | 71 | NV | no | | 3 | 79.84 | 77.94 | 78.93 | 127 | NV | no | | 4 | 79.50 | 77.45 | 78.42 | 134 | NV | no | | 5 | 78.17 | 75.99 | 76.75 | 96 | NV | no | | 6 | 78.09 | 75.06 | 75.63 | 78 | NV | no | | 7 | 76.35 | 74 | 75.04 | 46 | NV | no | | 8 | 77.92 | 74.48 | 75.97 | 26 | NV | no | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 13 | NV | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 11 | NV | yes | | 1 | 83.52 | 81.21 | 82.23 | 1,082 | NY | no | | 2 | 81.54 | 80.12 | 80.86 | 904 | NY | no | | 3 | 81.44 | 79.88 | 80.58 | 405 | NY | no | | 4 | 82.20 | 80.53 | 81.34 | 260 | NY | no | | 5 | 81.95 | 80.87 | 81.38 | 223 | NY | no | | 6 | 81.54 | 80.35 | 80.93 | 227 | NY | no | | 7 | 81.03 | 79.83 | 80.48 | 286 | NY | no | | 8 | 80.84 | 79.31 | 80.04 | 289 | NY | no | | 9 | 79.49 | 77.79 | 78.67 | 318 | NY | no | | 10 | 78.03 | 75.34 | 76.53 | 253 | NY | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 16 | OH | yes | | 2 | 83.79 | 80.85 | 82.37 | 40 | OH | no | | 3 | 82.03 | 80.89 | 81.41 | 105 | OH | no | | 4 | 80.77 | 79.70 | 80.12 | 133 | OH | no | | 5 | 80.62 | 80.03 | 80.31 | 225 | OH | no | | 6 | 79.46 | 78.67 | 79.04 | 309 | OH | no | | 7 | 78.62 | 77.68 | 78.13 | 422 | OH | no | | 8 | 77.71 | 76.59 | 77.14 | 458 | OH | no | | 9 | 76.13 | 74.94 | 75.57 | 464 | OH | no | | 10 | 73.25 | 72.24 | 72.75 | 599 | OH | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 3 | OK | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 9 | OK | yes | | 3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 17 | OK | yes | | 4 | 81.15 | 78.56 | 80.29 | 37 | OK | no | | 5 | 80.54 | 78.87 | 79.67 | 78 | OK | no | | 6 | 78.79 | 77.42 | 78.25 | 99 | OK | no | | 7 | 78.02 | 77.11 | 77.57 | 134 | OK | no | | 8 | 76.40 | 75.43 | 75.86 | 152 | OK | no | | 9 | 76.07 | 74.92 | 75.44 | 286 | OK | no | | 10 | 73.81 | 72.47 | 72.93 | 265 | OK | no | | 1 | 83.62 | 81.64 | 82.64 | 69 | OR | no | | 2 | 82.06 | 79.93 | 80.87 | 194 | OR | no | | 3 | 80.33 | 78.92 | 79.57 | 207 | OR | no | | 4 | 79.74 | 78.01 | 78.89 | 172 | OR | no | | 5 | 78.30 | 77.16 | 77.68 | 132 | OR | no | | 6 | 77.37 | 75.92 | 76.57 | 74 | OR | no | | 7 | 78.33 | 76.28 | 77.27 | 43 | OR | no | | 8 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 16 | OR | yes | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 8 | OR | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 2 | OR | yes | | 1 | 82.85 | 80.71 | 82.15 | 50 | PA | no | | 2 | 82.06 | 80.72 | 81.66 | 137 | PA | no | | 3 | 81.49 | 80.49 | 81.06 | 250 | PA | no | | 4 | 81.14 | 79.39 | 80.26 | 247 | PA | no | | 5 | 80.52 | 79.02 | 79.81 | 330 | PA | no | | 6 | 80.02 | 78.72 | 79.38 | 354 | PA | no | | 7 | 79.09 | 77.85 | 78.49 | 420 | PA | no | | 8 | 78.40 | 77.20 | 77.81 | 406 | PA | no | | 9 | 77.60 | 75.92 | 76.69 | 401 | PA | no | | 10 | 74.67 | 73.04 | 73.75 | 421 | PA | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 8 | RI | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | 81.66 | 23 | RI | no | | 3 | n/a | n/a | 80.52 | 38 | RI | no | | 4 | n/a | n/a | 80.07 | 42 | RI | no | | 5 | n/a | n/a | 78.34 | 62 | RI | no | | 6 | n/a | n/a | 76.56 | 28 | RI | no | | 7 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 10 | RI | yes | | 8 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 4 | RI | yes | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 1 | RI | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | RI | yes | | 1 | 82.76 | 80.47 | 81.45 | 21 | SC | no | | 2 | 83.66 | 79.79 | 81.09 | 37 | SC | no | | 3 | 80.93 | 79.62 | 80.16 | 51 | SC | no | | 4 | 80.72 | 79.01 | 79.89 | 83 | SC | no | | 5 | 79.26 | 78.24 | 78.83 | 95 | SC | no | | 6 | 78.31 | 77.34 | 77.86 | 137 | SC | no | | 7 | 77.61 | 76.37 | 76.98 | 165 | SC | no | | 8 | 76.50 | 75.50 | 76 | 140 | SC | no | | 9 | 75.50 | 74.58 | 74.99 | 183 | SC | no | | 10 | 74.38 | 73.49 | 73.90 | 236 | SC | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | SD | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 2 | SD | yes | | 3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 8 | SD | yes | | 4 | 83.30 | 81.05 | 82.39 | 21 | SD | no | | 5 | 84.12 | 80.92 | 81.95 | 22 | SD | no | | 6 | 81.24 | 79.61 | 80.39 | 34 | SD | no | | 7 | 80.72 | 79.13 | 79.82 | 48 | SD | no | | 8 | 80.46 | 77.29 | 78.75 | 32 | SD | no | | 9 | 78.97 | 76.54 | 77.55 | 38 | SD | no | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 18 | SD | yes | | 1 | 81.97 | 80 | 81.73 | 26 | TN | no | | 2 | 81.43 | 77.87 | 80.09 | 40 | TN | no | | 3 | 80.41 | 78.22 | 79.19 | 86 | TN | no | | 4 | 79.32 | 77.42 | 78.46 | 137 | TN | no | | 5 | 78.25 | 76.78 | 77.47 | 148 | TN | no | | 6 | 77.09 | 75.97 | 76.55 | 208 | TN | no | | 7 | 75.97 | 75.16 | 75.58 | 190 | TN | no | | 8 | 75.23 | 74.41 | 74.80 | 213 | TN | no | | 9 | 73.88 | 73.31 | 73.61 | 237 | TN | no | | 10 | 73.01 | 71.59 | 72.04 | 177 | TN | no | | 1 | 82.22 | 80.86 | 81.75 | 189 | TX | no | | 2 | 81.04 | 80.40 | 80.69 | 303 | TX | no | | 3 | 80.93 | 80.08 | 80.49 | 445 | TX | no | | 4 | 79.93 | 79.35 | 79.64 | 529 | TX | no | | 5 | 79.58 | 78.76 | 79.15 | 596 | TX | no | | 6 | 78.67 | 78 | 78.31 | 658 | TX | no | | 7 | 78.42 | 77.52 | 77.97 | 650 | TX | no | | 8 | 77.79 | 76.63 | 77.11 | 712 | TX | no | | 9 | 77.03 | 75.94 | 76.46 | 706 | TX | no | | 10 | 77.15 | 74.69 | 75.92 | 756 | TX | no | | 1 | 81.98 | 81.48 | 81.73 | 45 | UT | no | | 2 | 82.33 | 80.65 | 81.14 | 130 | UT | no | | 3 | 81.26 | 79.43 | 80.18 | 150 | UT | no | | 4 | 79.98 | 77.80 | 78.50 | 133 | UT | no | | 5 | 78.81 | 76.80 | 77.56 | 83 | UT | no | | 6 | 80.73 | 77.14 | 78.38 | 48 | UT | no | | 7 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 18 | UT | yes | | 8 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 3 | UT | yes | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 2 | UT | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 3 | UT | yes | | 1 | 83.30 | 81.77 | 82.74 | 213 | VA | no | | 2 | 81.82 | 80.41 | 81.33 | 219 | VA | no | | 3 | 80.68 | 79.59 | 80.09 | 232 | VA | no | | 4 | 80 | 79.04 | 79.53 | 196 | VA | no | | 5 | 79.08 | 78.08 | 78.62 | 213 | VA | no | | 6 | 78.04 | 76.63 | 77.36 | 206 | VA | no | | 7 | 76.85 | 75.83 | 76.34 | 173 | VA | no | | 8 | 75.72 | 74.58 | 75.15 | 146 | VA | no | | 9 | 75.44 | 74.37 | 74.94 | 137 | VA | no | | 10 | 74.41 | 72.82 | 73.55 | 101 | VA | no | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | VT | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 9 | VT | yes | | 3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 16 | VT | yes | | 4 | 84.08 | 80.76 | 81.68 | 31 | VT | no | | 5 | 83.33 | 80.77 | 81.91 | 33 | VT | no | | 6 | 82.72 | 80.59 | 81.71 | 40 | VT | no | | 7 | 81.17 | 79.21 | 80.20 | 27 | VT | no | | 8 | 78.96 | 77.03 | 78.08 | 21 | VT | no | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 4 | VT | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | VT | yes | | 1 | 82.94 | 81.68 | 82.34 | 343 | WA | no | | 2 | 81.79 | 80.29 | 80.63 | 358 | WA | no | | 3 | 80.57 | 79.20 | 79.64 | 351 | WA | no | | 4 | 79.33 | 77.60 | 78.35 | 240 | WA | no | | 5 | 78.87 | 77.60 | 78.15 | 129 | WA | no | | 6 | 78.84 | 77.07 | 77.94 | 97 | WA | no | | 7 | 77.91 | 75.46 | 76.60 | 70 | WA | no | | 8 | 79.58 | 75.16 | 76.99 | 25 | WA | no | | 9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 8 | WA | yes | | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 5 | WA | yes | | 1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 6 | WI | yes | | 2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 16 | WI | yes | | 3 | 81.74 | 80.02 | 81.34 | 81 | WI | no | | 4 | 81.65 | 80.67 | 81.03 | 133 | WI | no | | 5 | 80.79 | 79.87 | 80.31 | 200 | WI | no | | 6 | 81 | 79.99 | 80.48 | 218 | WI | no | | 7 | 79.85 | 78.56 | 79.15 | 256 | WI | no | | 8 | 78.34 | 76.98 | 77.56 | 194 | WI | no | | 9 | 77.93 | 76.53 | 77.17 | 144 | WI | no | | 10 | 76.68 | 73.67 | 74.17 | 75 | WI | no | The first 500 of 520 rows; every row is in https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/le_state_tiles.json. Note: A state's tenth with fewer than 20 tracts is left empty, so lines break. Intervals are from a bootstrap over counties; a state with too few counties for the bootstrap (Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Rhode Island and the District of Columbia) has no band. Source: USALEEP life expectancy at birth, 2010-2015, and Area Deprivation Index, 2023; population-weighted (ACS 2019-2023 tract population), modeled estimates Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/le_state_tiles.json ## All estimates Every fact in facts.json (113), sorted by id. | Fact id | Value | Unit | Estimand | Population | Period | Interval | n | Weights | Source | Note | | --- | ---: | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---: | --- | --- | --- | | adi_within | 34% | percent of the variance of the ADI national percentile | share of the population-weighted variance of the ADI national percentile that lies between tracts in the same county (sum-of-squares decomposition) | tracts in the 50 states and DC with all nine measures, an ACS population above zero and an ADI rank | ACS 2019-2023; ADI 2023 | | 82,545 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | Area Deprivation Index | | | alt_adi_least | 82.3 | Life expectancy at birth (years) | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy at birth; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the least deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Area Deprivation Index, among the tracts with all four rankings | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 82.1 to 82.6 | 7,179 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_adi_most | 74.0 | Life expectancy at birth (years) | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy at birth; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the most deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Area Deprivation Index, among the tracts with all four rankings | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 73.8 to 74.3 | 7,206 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_adi_rho | −1.00 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of tracts ranked by Area Deprivation Index | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | each bin counted once | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_degree_least | 82.3 | Life expectancy at birth (years) | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy at birth; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the least deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Bachelor's degree share, among the tracts with all four rankings | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 82.0 to 82.5 | 7,178 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_degree_most | 75.3 | Life expectancy at birth (years) | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy at birth; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the most deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Bachelor's degree share, among the tracts with all four rankings | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 74.9 to 75.7 | 7,175 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_degree_rho | −1.00 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of tracts ranked by Bachelor's degree share | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | each bin counted once | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_income_least | 82.2 | Life expectancy at birth (years) | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy at birth; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the least deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Median household income, among the tracts with all four rankings | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 82.0 to 82.4 | 7,177 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_income_most | 74.2 | Life expectancy at birth (years) | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy at birth; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the most deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Median household income, among the tracts with all four rankings | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 73.9 to 74.4 | 7,178 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_income_rho | −1.00 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of tracts ranked by Median household income | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | each bin counted once | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_n_places | 71,771 | tracts | count of tracts in the common sample of the ranking comparison | tracts with the outcome and all four rankings | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_rho_cut | 0.9 | absolute rank correlation | threshold between a steady and an uneven gradient | the rule for changed gradients (docs/RANKING_SWITCH_RULE.md) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (a fixed rule) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_rho_margin | 0.1 | absolute rank correlation | smallest move in the rank correlation that counts as a change of shape | the rule for changed gradients (docs/RANKING_SWITCH_RULE.md) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (a fixed rule) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_std_least | 82.4 | Life expectancy at birth (years) | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy at birth; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the least deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Standardized index, among the tracts with all four rankings | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 82.2 to 82.5 | 7,177 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_std_most | 74.7 | Life expectancy at birth (years) | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy at birth; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the most deprived tenth of tracts ranked by Standardized index, among the tracts with all four rankings | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 74.2 to 75.1 | 7,178 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | alt_std_rho | −1.00 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of tracts ranked by Standardized index | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | each bin counted once | USALEEP life expectancy | | | chk_delta | 3.6 | percentage points of adults, higher in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 2.4 to 4.6 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | | | chk_hi | 77.8% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (rank bins of the ADI; tracts with tied ranks fall in the same tenth), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 77.3% to 78.2% | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | | | chk_lo | 74.2% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (rank bins of the ADI; tracts with tied ranks fall in the same tenth), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the least deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 73.2% to 75.3% | 8,274 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | | | ladder_county | 1.12 | years of life expectancy at birth lower per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | population-weighted least-squares slope of tract life expectancy on the ADI national percentile, times ten, sign reversed, with a constant for each county; cluster-robust interval (t on the number of counties minus one) | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 1.07 to 1.16 | 77,722 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | ladder_raw | 0.84 | years of life expectancy at birth lower per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | population-weighted least-squares slope of tract life expectancy on the ADI national percentile, times ten, sign reversed; cluster-robust interval (t on the number of states minus one) | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 0.75 to 0.92 | 77,936 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | le_d1 | 82.3 | years of life expectancy at birth | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy in a tenth of tracts (rank bins of the ADI; tracts with tied ranks fall in the same tenth), bootstrap interval over counties | residents of tracts in the least deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 82.0 to 82.6 | 7,820 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | le_d10 | 74.0 | years of life expectancy at birth | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy in a tenth of tracts (rank bins of the ADI; tracts with tied ranks fall in the same tenth), bootstrap interval over counties | residents of tracts in the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 73.7 to 74.3 | 7,844 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | le_decile_drop | 8.3 | years of life expectancy at birth lower in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the population-weighted mean life expectancy of the least and the most deprived tenth of tracts, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 7.9 to 8.7 | 7,844 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | le_step_first | 1.3 | years of life expectancy at birth, first tenth minus second tenth of tracts by ADI | difference between the population-weighted mean life expectancy of the least deprived tenth and the next tenth, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared) | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 1.0 to 1.6 | 7,820 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | le_step_last | 1.9 | years of life expectancy at birth, ninth tenth minus tenth tenth of tracts by ADI | difference between the population-weighted mean life expectancy of the ninth tenth and the most deprived tenth, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared) | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 1.6 to 2.1 | 7,844 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | metro_flat_edge | 0.70 | years of life expectancy at birth lower per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | 5th percentile over metros of the estimated metro slope, sign reversed | residents of metros (core-based statistical areas) with at least 40 tracts that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 267 metros | none (each metro counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | A percentile of estimates, which are stretched by estimation error. | | metro_floor | 40 | tracts | minimum number of tracts with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank for a metro to enter (rule) | metros | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | metro_median | 1.20 | years of life expectancy at birth lower per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | median over metros of the metro slope, sign reversed; bootstrap interval over metros | residents of metros (core-based statistical areas) with at least 40 tracts that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 1.14 to 1.23 | 267 metros | none (each metro counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | metro_n_lower | 267 | metros | count of metros with life expectancy lower in more deprived tracts: the reported slope (years lower per ten-point step) is above zero | residents of metros (core-based statistical areas) with at least 40 tracts that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 267 metros | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | metro_n_sig | 260 | metros | count of metros whose 95% interval for the reported slope lies above zero | residents of metros (core-based statistical areas) with at least 40 tracts that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 267 metros | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | metro_noise | 48% | percent of the variance of the estimated metro slopes | mean squared standard error of the metro slopes over the variance of the estimated slopes across metros | residents of metros (core-based statistical areas) with at least 40 tracts that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 267 metros | none (each metro counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | The standard errors treat tracts as independent in metros with fewer than five counties, so this share may be too small. | | metro_pop_share | 82% | percent of residents | share of residents of the tract sample who live in the metros of the analysis | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 267 metros | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | metro_steep_edge | 1.67 | years of life expectancy at birth lower per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | 95th percentile over metros of the estimated metro slope, sign reversed | residents of metros (core-based statistical areas) with at least 40 tracts that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 267 metros | none (each metro counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | A percentile of estimates, which are stretched by estimation error. | | mto_age_cut | 13 | years of age | the age below which Chetty, Hendren and Katz (2016) find the gain in income (definition from the study) | children in the Moving to Opportunity experiment | age when the family moved | | | none (definition) | Published estimates from cited studies | | | mto_bmi_cut | 40 | kilograms per square meter (body-mass index) | the body-mass index at or above which Ludwig and coauthors (2011) count a woman as extremely obese (definition from the study) | women in the Moving to Opportunity experiment | health measured in 2008 to 2010 | | | none (definition) | Published estimates from cited studies | | | mto_diab_diff | 4.3 | percentage points lower prevalence of glycated hemoglobin of 6.5% or more in the low-poverty voucher group than in the control group | Ludwig and coauthors (2011), New England Journal of Medicine: 4,498 women with children living in public housing in high-poverty census tracts, randomly assigned in 1994 to 1998 to a voucher usable only in a low-poverty tract, an unrestricted voucher or no voucher; health measured in 2008 to 2010 (intention to treat); reported absolute difference in the prevalence of a glycated hemoglobin level of 6.5% or more, copied from the abstract and not computed in this build | women in the Moving to Opportunity experiment | health measured in 2008 to 2010 | 95% CI 0.8 to 7.8 | | none (reported estimate) | Published estimates from cited studies | A published estimate, not a result of this build. | | mto_hba1c_cut | 6.5% | percent glycated hemoglobin | the glycated hemoglobin level at or above which Ludwig and coauthors (2011) count a woman as having diabetes (definition from the study) | women in the Moving to Opportunity experiment | health measured in 2008 to 2010 | | | none (definition) | Published estimates from cited studies | | | mto_income_itt | 14% | percent higher annual income in the mid-twenties than the control group (intention to treat, $1,624) | Chetty, Hendren and Katz (2016), American Economic Review (NBER working paper 21156): children below age 13 at random assignment, individual earnings in the mid-twenties, control mean $11,270; intention-to-treat effect of assignment to the experimental voucher group, $1,624, a 14 percent increase; read in the text of the working paper and not computed in this build | children below age 13 at random assignment to the experimental voucher group of the Moving to Opportunity experiment | income in the mid-twenties | | | none (reported estimate) | Published estimates from cited studies | A published estimate, not a result of this build. | | mto_income_tot | 31% | percent higher annual income in the mid-twenties among families that took up the voucher (treatment on the treated, $3,477) | Chetty, Hendren and Katz (2016), American Economic Review (NBER working paper 21156): children below age 13 at random assignment, individual earnings in the mid-twenties, control mean $11,270; treatment-on-the-treated effect for families that took up the experimental voucher, the intention-to-treat effect scaled by the take-up rate, $3,477, a 31 percent increase; read in the text of the working paper and not computed in this build | children below age 13 whose families took up the experimental voucher in the Moving to Opportunity experiment | income in the mid-twenties | | | none (reported estimate) | Published estimates from cited studies | A published estimate, not a result of this build. | | mto_obese_diff | 3.4 | percentage points lower prevalence of a body-mass index of 40 or more in the low-poverty voucher group than in the control group | Ludwig and coauthors (2011), New England Journal of Medicine: 4,498 women with children living in public housing in high-poverty census tracts, randomly assigned in 1994 to 1998 to a voucher usable only in a low-poverty tract, an unrestricted voucher or no voucher; health measured in 2008 to 2010 (intention to treat); reported absolute difference in the prevalence of a body-mass index of 40 or more, copied from the abstract and not computed in this build | women in the Moving to Opportunity experiment | health measured in 2008 to 2010 | 95% CI 0.4 to 6.4 | | none (reported estimate) | Published estimates from cited studies | A published estimate, not a result of this build. | | mto_takeup | 48% | percent of families assigned the experimental voucher who took it up | Chetty, Hendren and Katz (2016): take-up rate of the experimental voucher; read in the text of the working paper (NBER w21156) and not computed in this build | families in the experimental voucher group of the Moving to Opportunity experiment | take-up of the voucher | | | none (reported estimate) | Published estimates from cited studies | A published estimate, not a result of this build. | | n_cloud | 4,000 | tracts | size of the random sample of tracts drawn with a fixed seed for the scatter (rule) | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 77,936 tracts | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | n_gradient_tracts | 77,936 | tracts | count of tracts in the gradient | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | n_metros | 267 | metros | count of metros | residents of metros (core-based statistical areas) with at least 40 tracts that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | Metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas; each tract takes the area of its county (Census county file). | | n_no_pair | 3 | counties | count of counties with no pair whose ADI difference reaches the minimum | the 20 most populous counties | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | n_pair_pool | 4,917 | tracts | count of tracts from which the pairs are drawn | tracts of the 20 most populous counties that pass the floors of the rule: boundary unchanged since 2010, not institutional, at least 2,000 residents, a standard error of at most 2.0 years, an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | n_pair_tracts | 13,625 | tracts | count of tracts searched | 2020 tracts of the 20 most populous counties with an ACS population above zero and a life expectancy estimate | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | n_pairs | 17 | pairs of tracts | count of counties with such a pair (one pair per county) | counties among the 20 most populous with a pair that meets the rule | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | n_spread_counties | 30 | counties | number of most populous counties in the county spread (rule) | counties and county equivalents of the 50 states and DC | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | nyc_borough_mean_range | 4.2 | years of life expectancy at birth between the highest and the lowest borough mean of tract life expectancy | largest minus smallest of the five boroughs' population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy | residents of non-institutional tracts in the five boroughs of New York City (Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens and Richmond counties) that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 5 boroughs | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | A spread of five means and a range of tract estimates are not the same kind of contrast. | | nyc_borough_range_min | 9.3 | years of life expectancy at birth between the 5th and 95th percentile of tracts in a borough | smallest of the five boroughs' population-weighted 95th minus 5th percentile of tract life expectancy (it is Richmond County's), each borough counted once | residents of non-institutional tracts in the five boroughs of New York City (Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens and Richmond counties) that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 5 boroughs | none (each borough counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | The percentiles are of modeled tract estimates, so part of the range is estimation error. | | nyc_borough_range_min_net | 6.9 | years of life expectancy at birth between the 5th and 95th percentile of tracts in a borough, net of estimation error | smallest of the five boroughs' 5th to 95th percentile range after shrinking the tract estimates toward the borough mean by the square root of one minus the share of the variance that is estimation error (published standard errors, normal approximation), each borough counted once | residents of non-institutional tracts in the five boroughs of New York City (Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens and Richmond counties) that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 5 boroughs | none (each borough counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | The 2020-tract standard errors are mapping grade and understate the noise, so the range net of error is an upper bound. | | nyc_n_gray | 250 | tracts | count of gray tracts on the map: no residents in the ACS, no life expectancy estimate, an institutional population, or no ADI rank | 2020 tracts of the five boroughs of New York City (Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens and Richmond counties) that are not in the gradient sample | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | nyc_n_shaded | 2,074 | tracts | count of tracts shaded on the New York City map: the tracts of the gradient sample that lie in the five boroughs | non-institutional tracts in the five boroughs of New York City (Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens and Richmond counties) with a life expectancy estimate, an ACS 2019-2023 population above zero and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | nyc_noise | 37% | percent of the variance of tract life expectancy across the five boroughs | population-weighted mean squared standard error of the tract estimates over their population-weighted variance (the published errors taken at face value) | residents of non-institutional tracts in the five boroughs of New York City (Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens and Richmond counties) that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 2,074 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | The 2020-tract errors are mapping grade and understate the noise, so the share is a lower bound. | | nyc_se_median | 2.0 | years of life expectancy | median over the shaded tracts of the standard error of tract life expectancy, each tract counted once | residents of non-institutional tracts in the five boroughs of New York City (Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens and Richmond counties) that have a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 2,074 tracts | none (each tract counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | The 2020-tract standard errors are mapping grade and understate the error of the area-weighted estimates. | | pair_adi_min | 50 | percentile points of the ADI national percentile | smallest difference in ADI between the two tracts for a pair to count (rule) | pairs of tracts | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pair_n_counties | 20 | counties | number of most populous counties searched for a pair (rule) | counties and county equivalents of the 50 states and DC | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pair_pop_floor | 2,000 | residents | smallest ACS 2019-2023 population of a tract that enters a pair (rule) | tracts in a pair | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pair_radius | 5 | kilometers | largest straight-line distance between the Census internal points of the two tracts (rule) | pairs of tracts | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pair_se_cap | 2.0 | years of life expectancy | largest standard error of the USALEEP life expectancy of a tract that enters a pair (rule) | tracts in a pair | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pair_stable_share | 99% | percent of land area | smallest share of the land area of the 2010 tract and of the 2020 tract that two tracts with one GEOID must share for the boundary to count as unchanged (rule) | tracts present in both the 2010 and the 2020 census | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_median_gap | 5.4 | years of life expectancy at birth, less deprived tract minus more deprived tract | median over the pairs of the difference in life expectancy, each pair counted once; bootstrap interval over pairs | residents of the tracts of one pair per county: in each of the 20 most populous counties, the two tracts within 5 kilometers of each other with the widest difference in ADI, where that difference is at least 50 percentile points | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | 95% CI 3.0 to 6.9 | 17 pairs of tracts | none (each pair counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | The two tracts of a pair are chosen on the ADI and not on life expectancy, so the difference is not selected for size. | | pairs_median_km3 | 2.7 | years of life expectancy at birth, less deprived tract minus more deprived tract | median over pairs of the difference in life expectancy, each pair counted once | pairs chosen by the same rule with 3 kilometers in place of the main setting, in counties where a pair meets the ADI minimum | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | 17 pairs of tracts | none (each pair counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_median_km8 | 5.1 | years of life expectancy at birth, less deprived tract minus more deprived tract | median over pairs of the difference in life expectancy, each pair counted once | pairs chosen by the same rule with 8 kilometers in place of the main setting, in counties where a pair meets the ADI minimum | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | 18 pairs of tracts | none (each pair counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_median_pop4000 | 5.5 | years of life expectancy at birth, less deprived tract minus more deprived tract | median over pairs of the difference in life expectancy, each pair counted once | pairs chosen by the same rule with a population floor of 4,000 in place of the main setting, in counties where a pair meets the ADI minimum | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | 16 pairs of tracts | none (each pair counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_median_se15 | 4.3 | years of life expectancy at birth, less deprived tract minus more deprived tract | median over pairs of the difference in life expectancy, each pair counted once | pairs chosen by the same rule with a standard-error cap of 1.5 years in place of the main setting, in counties where a pair meets the ADI minimum | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | 15 pairs of tracts | none (each pair counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_median_se30 | 6.2 | years of life expectancy at birth, less deprived tract minus more deprived tract | median over pairs of the difference in life expectancy, each pair counted once | pairs chosen by the same rule with a standard-error cap of 3.0 years in place of the main setting, in counties where a pair meets the ADI minimum | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | 17 pairs of tracts | none (each pair counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_median_senone | 4.6 | years of life expectancy at birth, less deprived tract minus more deprived tract | median over pairs of the difference in life expectancy, each pair counted once | pairs chosen by the same rule with no standard-error cap in place of the main setting, in counties where a pair meets the ADI minimum | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | 18 pairs of tracts | none (each pair counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_n_clear | 12 | pairs of tracts | count of pairs whose 95% interval for the difference, which treats the two standard errors as independent, lies above zero | residents of the tracts of one pair per county: in each of the 20 most populous counties, the two tracts within 5 kilometers of each other with the widest difference in ADI, where that difference is at least 50 percentile points | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | 17 pairs of tracts | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_n_higher | 15 | pairs of tracts | count of pairs in which the less deprived tract has the higher life expectancy estimate | residents of the tracts of one pair per county: in each of the 20 most populous counties, the two tracts within 5 kilometers of each other with the widest difference in ADI, where that difference is at least 50 percentile points | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | 17 pairs of tracts | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_n_se15 | 15 | pairs of tracts | count of counties with such a pair (one pair per county) | pairs chosen by the same rule with a standard-error cap of 1.5 years, in counties where a pair meets the ADI minimum | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_n_senone | 18 | pairs of tracts | count of counties with such a pair (one pair per county) | pairs chosen by the same rule with no standard-error cap, in counties where a pair meets the ADI minimum | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_pop_alt | 4,000 | residents | larger population floor tried (sensitivity) | tracts in a pair | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_radius_km3 | 3 | kilometers | smaller radius tried (sensitivity) | pairs of tracts | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_radius_km8 | 8 | kilometers | larger radius tried (sensitivity) | pairs of tracts | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_se_alt_hi | 3.0 | years of life expectancy | larger standard-error cap tried (sensitivity) | tracts in a pair | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pairs_se_alt_lo | 1.5 | years of life expectancy | smaller standard-error cap tried (sensitivity) | tracts in a pair | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pw_adi_hi | 94 | ADI national percentile | Area Deprivation Index national percentile of one tract (mean of its block groups' ranks), rounded | the more deprived tract of the widest pair | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | 1 tracts | none (one tract) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pw_adi_lo | 24 | ADI national percentile | Area Deprivation Index national percentile of one tract (mean of its block groups' ranks), rounded | the less deprived tract of the widest pair | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | 1 tracts | none (one tract) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pw_gap | 12.4 | years of life expectancy at birth, less deprived tract minus more deprived tract | difference between the USALEEP life expectancy of the less deprived and the more deprived tract; 95% interval treats the two standard errors as independent | residents of two tracts of Cook County, IL, within 5 kilometers of each other (the pair of that county with the widest ADI difference) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | 95% CI 7.6 to 17.2 | 2 tracts | none (two tracts) | USALEEP life expectancy | The widest of the 17 pairs by life expectancy, so its estimate is the likeliest to include noise that raised the gap. | | pw_km | 5.0 | kilometers | straight-line distance between the Census internal points of the two tracts | residents of two tracts of Cook County, IL, within 5 kilometers of each other (the pair of that county with the widest ADI difference) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | | | none (one pair) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pw_le_hi | 65.8 | years of life expectancy at birth | USALEEP life expectancy at birth of one tract (native 2010 tract), 95% interval of 1.96 standard errors | residents of the more deprived tract of the pair, Census Tract 4910 | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | 95% CI 62.5 to 69.1 | 1 tracts | none (one tract) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | pw_le_lo | 78.2 | years of life expectancy at birth | USALEEP life expectancy at birth of one tract (native 2010 tract), 95% interval of 1.96 standard errors | residents of the less deprived tract of the pair, Census Tract 7201 | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, native 2010 tracts); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 on the same tracts | 95% CI 74.7 to 81.7 | 1 tracts | none (one tract) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | smk_delta | 13.7 | percentage points of adults, higher in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: current cigarette smoking | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 13.1 to 14.4 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | | | smk_hi | 22.8% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (rank bins of the ADI; tracts with tied ranks fall in the same tenth), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: current cigarette smoking | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 22.5% to 23.1% | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | | | smk_lo | 9.1% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (rank bins of the ADI; tracts with tied ranks fall in the same tenth), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the least deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: current cigarette smoking | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 8.5% to 9.6% | 8,274 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | | | spread_median | 10.5 | years of life expectancy at birth between the 5th and 95th percentile of tracts | median over counties of the population-weighted 95th minus 5th percentile of tract life expectancy, each county counted once | residents of the 30 most populous counties and Connecticut planning regions | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 30 counties | none (each county counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | The percentiles are of modeled tract estimates, so part of the range is estimation error. | | spread_median_15 | 10.5 | years of life expectancy at birth between the 5th and 95th percentile of tracts | median over counties of the population-weighted 95th minus 5th percentile of tract life expectancy, each county counted once | residents of the 15 most populous counties and Connecticut planning regions | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 15 counties | none (each county counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | spread_median_60 | 10.5 | years of life expectancy at birth between the 5th and 95th percentile of tracts | median over counties of the population-weighted 95th minus 5th percentile of tract life expectancy, each county counted once | residents of the 60 most populous counties and Connecticut planning regions | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 60 counties | none (each county counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | spread_median_net | 7.7 | years of life expectancy at birth between the 5th and 95th percentile of tracts, net of estimation error | median over counties of the 5th to 95th percentile range after shrinking the tract estimates toward the county mean by the square root of one minus the share of the variance that is estimation error (published standard errors, normal approximation) | residents of the 30 most populous counties and Connecticut planning regions | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 30 counties | none (each county counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | The 2020-tract standard errors are mapping grade and understate the noise, so the range net of error is an upper bound. | | spread_n_15 | 15 | counties | smaller or larger number of counties tried (sensitivity) | counties and county equivalents of the 50 states and DC | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | spread_n_60 | 60 | counties | smaller or larger number of counties tried (sensitivity) | counties and county equivalents of the 50 states and DC | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | spread_noise_median | 43% | percent of the variance of tract life expectancy within the county | median over counties of the mean squared standard error of tract life expectancy over the population-weighted variance of tract life expectancy in the county | residents of the 30 most populous counties and Connecticut planning regions | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 30 counties | none (each county counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | spread_widest | 13.9 | years of life expectancy at birth between the 5th and 95th percentile of tracts | population-weighted 95th minus 5th percentile of tract life expectancy in the county with the widest range among the 30 most populous | residents of Cook County, IL | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 1,221 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | Includes estimation error. | | st_min_tracts | 20 | tracts | definition: the fewest tracts a state's tenth needs for an estimate | a state's tenth of tracts | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | st_span | 4 | national tenths | definition: the fewest national tenths, first to last, a state's estimated tenths must span to be counted | a state's tracts | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (definition) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | st_with_span | 49 | states | count of states (50 and DC) meeting the stated rule, from population-weighted tract means by national ADI tenth | states whose estimated national ADI tenths of tracts run at least 3 tenths apart | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | tenth_max | 8,031 | tracts | largest count of tracts in a tenth of the gradient by ADI national percentile (tracts with tied ranks fall in the same tenth) | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | tenth_min | 7,613 | tracts | smallest count of tracts in a tenth of the gradient by ADI national percentile (tracts with tied ranks fall in the same tenth) | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | tract_se_median | 1.7 | years of life expectancy | median over tracts of the standard error of tract life expectancy, each tract counted once | residents of non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | | 77,936 tracts | none (each tract counts once) | USALEEP life expectancy | The 2020-tract standard errors are mapping grade and understate the error of the area-weighted estimates. | | us_checkup | 75.6% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence over all the tracts of the tenths pooled, bootstrap interval over counties (the draws of the tenths) | adults in all tracts with an ADI rank: routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 75.1% to 76.0% | 82,781 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | | | us_le | 78.8 | years of life expectancy at birth | population-weighted mean of tract life expectancy over all the tracts of the tenths pooled, bootstrap interval over counties (the draws of the tenths) | residents of all the tracts in the comparison: non-institutional tracts in the 50 states and DC with a life expectancy estimate and an ADI rank | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts); ADI 2023; ACS 2019-2023 population | 95% CI 78.6 to 79.0 | 77,936 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | | | us_smoking | 14.5% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence over all the tracts of the tenths pooled, bootstrap interval over counties (the draws of the tenths) | adults in all tracts with an ADI rank: current cigarette smoking | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 14.2% to 14.8% | 82,781 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | | | vsplit_county | 15.9 | percent of the variance of tract life expectancy | share of the population-weighted variance of tract life expectancy at birth between counties within states (sum-of-squares decomposition) | residents of non-institutional tracts with a life expectancy estimate (50 states and DC) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts) | | 78,008 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | Connecticut's nine planning regions stand in for its counties. The tract estimates are modeled; their mean squared standard error equals 26.7 percent of the total variance and sits inside the within-county share. | | vsplit_n_counties | 3,112 | counties and Connecticut planning regions | count of counties with at least one tract in the variance split | residents of non-institutional tracts with a life expectancy estimate (50 states and DC) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts) | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | vsplit_n_tracts | 78,008 | tracts | count of tracts in the variance split | residents of non-institutional tracts with a life expectancy estimate (50 states and DC) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts) | | | none (full count) | USALEEP life expectancy | | | vsplit_noise | 26.7 | percent of the variance of tract life expectancy | population-weighted mean squared standard error of tract life expectancy as a share of the total variance | residents of non-institutional tracts with a life expectancy estimate (50 states and DC) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts) | | 78,008 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | The 2020-tract standard errors are mapping grade and understate the error. | | vsplit_noise_within | 38% | percent of the within-county variance of tract life expectancy | mean squared standard error of tract life expectancy over the within-county part of the variance (the canonical noise share over the canonical within-county share), taking the published errors at face value | residents of non-institutional tracts with a life expectancy estimate (50 states and DC) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts) | | 78,008 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | The same denominator as the county shares of estimation error in the county spread figure. | | vsplit_state | 13.7 | percent of the variance of tract life expectancy | share of the population-weighted variance of tract life expectancy at birth between states (sum-of-squares decomposition) | residents of non-institutional tracts with a life expectancy estimate (50 states and DC) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts) | | 78,008 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | Connecticut's nine planning regions stand in for its counties. The tract estimates are modeled; their mean squared standard error equals 26.7 percent of the total variance and sits inside the within-county share. | | vsplit_within | 70.3 | percent of the variance of tract life expectancy | share of the population-weighted variance of tract life expectancy at birth between tracts within counties (sum-of-squares decomposition) | residents of non-institutional tracts with a life expectancy estimate (50 states and DC) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts) | | 78,008 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | Connecticut's nine planning regions stand in for its counties. The tract estimates are modeled; their mean squared standard error equals 26.7 percent of the total variance and sits inside the within-county share. | | vsplit_within_signal | 60% | percent of the variance net of estimation error | within-county share of the variance of tract life expectancy after subtracting the mean squared standard error from the total and from the within-county part | residents of non-institutional tracts with a life expectancy estimate (50 states and DC) | deaths in 2010 to 2015 (USALEEP, area-weighted onto 2020 tracts) | | 78,008 tracts | ACS 2019-2023 tract population | USALEEP life expectancy | Takes the published standard errors at face value; the 2020-tract errors are mapping grade and understate the noise, so the share of the true differences that lies within counties is lower. | ## Definitions - Census tract: A small area drawn by the Census Bureau to stand in for a neighborhood. Boundaries are redrawn after each decennial census. - Area Deprivation Index (ADI): A score that ranks neighborhoods by income, education, employment and housing conditions drawn from the American Community Survey. In this book a higher national percentile means a more deprived neighborhood. - Modeled estimate: A figure produced by a statistical model instead of a direct count or measurement, usually for small areas where direct data are thin, borrowing strength from surveys, neighboring areas or other data. Neighboring areas can share errors, so single extremes call for caution. - Fixed effects: A regression adjustment that gives each group, such as each county, its own baseline. The estimate then rests on differences within groups. - Ecological inference: Drawing conclusions about individuals from data about places or groups. A pattern across counties need not hold for the people inside them. ## Methods This chapter compares neighborhood estimates of life expectancy with a deprivation index and repeats the comparison at smaller geographic scales. The deaths behind the estimates (2010 to 2015) precede the survey data behind the index (2019 to 2023) by about a decade, the tract estimates are modeled and the displayed intervals do not carry all of their error, and the nearby pairs come from a rule applied to the most populous counties only. No result estimates what moving would do to a person's lifespan; the box on the Moving to Opportunity experiment quotes cited studies. ### Sample and period Tract life expectancy at birth is the USALEEP estimate for deaths in 2010 to 2015. The gradient, the metro slopes, the variance split, the county spread and the New York City map use the file on 2020 tracts, with institutional tracts (at least 25 percent of residents in group quarters, or a known case) dropped and an ACS 2019-2023 population above zero, in the 50 states and DC. The gradient covers the 77,936 such tracts that have an estimate and an ADI rank. The Area Deprivation Index is the 2023 release of the national percentile (1 least, 100 most deprived), built on the ACS for 2019 to 2023, joined by tract. The deaths therefore precede the ACS data the ADI uses by about a decade. The nearby pairs use a separate sample, the native 2010 tracts of the most populous counties whose boundaries did not change (How the neighborhoods were paired, below). Smoking and the checkup are CDC PLACES 2024 estimates, which model survey responses from 2022. The box on the Moving to Opportunity experiment quotes estimates from the cited studies; they are not results of this build and keep the populations, outcomes and periods the studies report. The New York City map draws the tracts of the gradient sample that lie in the five counties of New York City (Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens and Richmond) on the 2020 tract outlines of the city, and every other tract of the outlines is gray with a reason: no residents in the ACS, no life expectancy estimate, an institutional tract or no ADI rank. No tract is chosen or marked. Explains Table 1, Table 2, Table 6, Table 4 and Table 5. ### Matching places across years USALEEP built its estimates on 2010 tracts. The file on 2020 tracts used for the gradient and the comparisons of scale is area-weighted from the 2010 tracts, and its standard errors are mapping grade, so they understate the uncertainty of an estimate on a 2020 tract. A pair uses the native estimate and standard error for the 2010 tract, not the interpolated file, and only for tracts whose boundary did not change. The 2010 and 2020 tracts with one GEOID must share at least 99% of the land area of each (Census 2010-to-2020 relationship file), so the ADI and the ACS population of the 2020 tract describe the same ground. ### Weights and comparisons Weights are the ACS 2019-2023 tract population for the means of tenths and percentiles, the metro slopes, the county spread and the borough figures, so those results describe residents, and so are the variance splits of life expectancy and of the ADI. Medians across metros, counties and boroughs count each place once, and each pair counts once in the median gap over pairs. Tenths of tracts are rank bins of the ADI with tracts of tied rank in the same tenth, so they hold from 7,613 to 8,031 tracts. The dots in the first tab of the gradient figure are a random sample of 4,000 tracts drawn with a fixed seed; the line, the band and the markers use every tract. Smoking and the checkup are the estimates of the chapter on health behaviors and the supply of care, from its function and its tenths of tracts, weighted by adults in each tract, with county-bootstrap intervals. PLACES values are modeled estimates built partly from the ACS, as the ADI is, so part of each gradient is built in. ### Uncertainty Each tract estimate has a published standard error, with a median of 1.7 years. The interval of a tract is 1.96 standard errors, and the interval of a gap treats the two errors as independent. Intervals for the means of tenths and percentiles come from repeatedly drawing whole counties with replacement and recomputing the mean, a bootstrap over counties; they are percentile intervals from 2,000 draws with seed 12345. The median gap over pairs has a bootstrap interval over pairs, with the same draws and seed. Metro slopes have errors clustered on counties where a metro has at least five and HC3 errors otherwise. The band in the gradient figure is the population-weighted interquartile range of tracts at each ADI percentile. It describes the spread of places, includes estimation error and is not an interval for the line. The bootstrap resamples counties of published estimates. It does not add the error of the USALEEP model beyond the published standard errors, the error of moving estimates onto 2020 tracts or uncertainty in the ADI. Explains Table 1 and Table 3. ### How the neighborhoods were paired Each of the 20 most populous counties, by ACS population of the tracts in the sample, is searched. A tract enters if its boundary did not change between the 2010 and 2020 censuses (Matching places across years, above), if it is not an institutional tract such as a prison or a dormitory, if it has at least 2,000 residents and if the standard error of its life expectancy is at most 2.0 years. 4,917 of the 13,625 non-institutional tracts of these counties that have a life expectancy estimate qualify. Among qualifying tracts whose Census internal points are at most 5 kilometers apart (a straight line, projected to EPSG:5070), the county's pair is the one whose ADI differs most, with ties going to the shorter distance, and it counts if the difference reaches 50 percentile points. No pair reaches that difference in 3 counties, and they are left out. The rule never looks at life expectancy. The data hold no transit routes, so the pairs are a short distance apart and not a measured ride. The pairs are the result of a rule applied to large counties and are not a sample of neighborhoods. Explains Table 3. ### How the local slopes and variance split were calculated The metro slopes and the fixed-effects ladder are the functions of the chapter on gradients, slopes and variance. A core-based statistical area is coded by the Census county file, a metro needs at least 40 tracts, and each slope is a population-weighted least-squares fit. The within-county slope adds a separate baseline for each county. The variance split is b2.canon.variance_split(), the function the chapter on gradients, slopes and variance calls, and the split of the ADI is the one in the chapter on gradients, slopes and variance. Estimation error is the population-weighted mean squared standard error of the tract estimates as a share of the total variance; the 2020-tract standard errors are mapping grade and understate it. The county spread gives, for the 30 most populous counties, the population-weighted 5th and 95th percentiles of tract life expectancy and the population-weighted mean. The view net of estimation error shrinks each tract estimate toward the county mean by the square root of one minus the county's share of variance that is estimation error. The shrinkage is an approximation that takes the published errors at face value; it does not recover the true differences between tracts. For the New York City map, the 5th to 95th percentile of tract life expectancy in a borough and the mean of a borough are population-weighted, and the shrinkage toward the borough mean and the share of the variance that is estimation error are the rules of the county spread, applied to the five boroughs and taking the published standard errors at face value. Explains Table 6, Table 4, Table 5 and Table 2. ### How the results change under alternative choices The median gap over pairs depends on the settings of the rule, above all the radius. Pairs chosen within 3 kilometers have a median gap of 2.7 years, and within 8 kilometers it is 5.1, against 5.4 within 5 kilometers. Raising the population floor to 4,000 residents gives 5.5. A cap of 1.5 years on the standard error gives a median of 4.3 over 15 pairs, a cap of 3.0 years gives 6.2, and no cap gives 4.6 over 18 pairs. The number of counties in the county spread matters little. The median range is 10.5 years among the 15 most populous counties and 10.5 among the 60 most populous, against 10.5 among 30. Explains Table 3 and Table 5. ### Four rankings of the same places The comparison follows the book's ranking switch rule, fixed on October 28, 2026 before any of these gradients was computed. The main gradient of the chapter is recomputed under four rankings of the same places, with the outcome, period, weights, bins and intervals unchanged: the published ADI; a standardized index that applies the ADI's coefficients to its measures after standardizing each one across tracts; median household income; and the share of adults 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more. The three alternatives come from ACS tract estimates for 2019 to 2023, the period of the ADI. All four rankings use the same places, the 71,771 tracts that have the outcome and all four rankings, so the ADI panel can differ slightly from the chapter's main figure. Tracts enter only if they have every input of the standardized index, which leaves out tracts without a median rent, home value or mortgage cost. A pattern counts as changed when the worse end switches sides, when the two ends differ under one ranking and not the other, or when the rank correlation of bin order and bin mean falls on the other side of 0.9 and moves by at least 0.1. Explains Table 7. ### Rankings and subsets of places The file splits.json in this chapter's data folder repeats the tenths of tracts under five rankings (the ADI, the standardized index, median household income, the bachelor's degree share and the median home value) and within subsets of places: the four Census regions, counties where at least 25% of residents are Black alone and the other counties (ACS 2019-2023), and metro and nonmetro counties (Rural-Urban Continuum Codes 2023). Each place keeps its national tenth, so an end bin means the same level of deprivation in every subset. The outcome, weights and bootstrap are those of the chapter's gradient, over the places with all five rankings. A tenth with fewer than 20 tracts or 5 counties is left empty. ## What these data cannot show Outside the box, every number here describes places. A tract with a lower life expectancy and a higher ADI is a tract whose residents, taken together, died younger in 2010 to 2015, and the data do not say which of them did, or whether a person who moved would have died later (ecological inference). The pairs show that nearby tracts differ, and the data cannot separate what the places do from who lives in them. The experiment in the box covers women and children who enrolled in one program, and it does not say how much of the gradient in the figures would change if a place changed. The periods differ. The life expectancy estimates are modeled for deaths in 2010 to 2015 and were never updated. The ADI is a national percentile built on survey data for 2019 to 2023, and it may rank a tract differently from the way the same tract looked in 2010. The geography is matched imperfectly. The 2020-tract file used for the gradient is area-weighted from 2010 tracts, and its errors are mapping grade, approximations that understate the uncertainty. Because the pairs are chosen on the ADI among large counties, their median describes that rule, as the sensitivity to the radius shows, and says nothing about counties that are small or rural. The counties left out are Los Angeles, Santa Clara and Alameda, all in California, and the ADI understates deprivation in high-cost cities, so a qualifying pair there may exist and not be found. The distances are straight lines and not rides. Puerto Rico has no life expectancy estimates and is not included, and Connecticut's planning regions stand in for its counties. Institutional tracts are dropped, and a tract without an estimate is absent and not zero. The estimates are modeled. A tract's life expectancy has a median standard error of 1.7 years, which the intervals in Table 3 show. The intervals in the figures come from resampling counties of published estimates, and they leave out error in the life expectancy model beyond its standard errors, error from moving estimates onto 2020 tracts and uncertainty in the ADI. The PLACES measures are modeled estimates built partly from the same census and survey inputs as the ADI, so the lines for smoking and the checkup show how the model maps those inputs into prevalence as well as how adults differ. ## References 1. Arias, Elizabeth; Escobedo, Luis A.; Kennedy, Jiaquan; Fu, Chenxi; Cisewski, Jodi (2018). U.S. Small-area Life Expectancy Estimates Project: Methodology and Results Summary. Vital and Health Statistics, Series 2, Number 181, National Center for Health Statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_02/sr02_181.pdf 2. Kind, Amy J. H.; Buckingham, William R. (2018). Making Neighborhood-Disadvantage Metrics Accessible: The Neighborhood Atlas. New England Journal of Medicine 378(26): 2456-2458. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1802313 3. Greenlund, Kurt J.; Lu, Hua; Wang, Yan; Matthews, Kevin A.; LeClercq, Jennifer M.; Lee, Benjamin; Carlson, Susan A. (2022). PLACES: Local Data for Better Health. Preventing Chronic Disease 19: 210459. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd19.210459 4. Ludwig, Jens; Sanbonmatsu, Lisa; Gennetian, Lisa; Adam, Emma; Duncan, Greg J.; Katz, Lawrence F.; Kessler, Ronald C.; Kling, Jeffrey R.; Lindau, Stacy Tessler; Whitaker, Robert C.; McDade, Thomas W. (2011). Neighborhoods, Obesity, and Diabetes: A Randomized Social Experiment. New England Journal of Medicine 365(16): 1509-1519. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1103216 5. Chetty, Raj; Hendren, Nathaniel; Katz, Lawrence F. (2016). The Effects of Exposure to Better Neighborhoods on Children: New Evidence from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment. 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| | public/data/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/splits.json | 63e1adbb1d7ae3354bb1e224c982a8c535e1e1137340d5ae18d3d5e613b3c353 | | refs.json | 2d976463c36bc44fd12832d343cc0a844526c07065c1c3444516db9b007dd7f8 | ## Machine formats - Report (HTML): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/report - Report (Markdown): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/report.md - Every estimate (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/facts.json - Table 1, figure "le_gradient" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/le_gradient.json - Table 2, figure "nyc_le_map" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/nyc_le_map.json - Table 3, figure "neighborhood_pairs" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/neighborhood_pairs.json - Table 4, figure "variance_split" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/variance_split.json - Table 5, figure "county_spread" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/county_spread.json - Table 6, figure "metro_slopes" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/metro_slopes.json - Table 7, figure "alt_rankings" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/alt_rankings.json - Table 8, figure "le_state_tiles" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/figures/le_state_tiles.json - Payload of "le_gradient" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/le_by_adi_tracts.json - Payload of "nyc_le_map" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/place-and-the-length-of-a-life/nyc_le_map.json - Index of every report: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/llms.txt; all reports in one file: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/llms-full.txt