# Infant mortality: report

Chapter 2.2 of ZIP Code Destiny, by Vishal Singh (NYU Stern). Generated from the chapter's data files; the reading version is at https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/infant-mortality. Table n of this report is figure n of the chapter.

## Identification

- Title: Infant mortality
- Label: The first year
- Chapter: 2.2 (Part II, Birth; An American life)
- Question: How does the infant mortality rate vary across states and levels of county deprivation, and how does it differ by race and by age at death?
- Dek: Infant mortality in 2018 to 2022 ran from 3.7 deaths per 1,000 live births in Massachusetts and New Hampshire to 8.7 in Mississippi.
- Grain: counties
- Status: published
- Published: 2026-10-09
- Updated: not revised
- Data sources:
  - CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death. CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death, state totals and race, county totals and age at death, 2018 to 2022 (mother's race 2018 and 2019 only); years: 2018-2022; weights: none (full counts; crude rates)
  - Area Deprivation Index. Neighborhood Atlas Area Deprivation Index 2023 (v4.0.1), tract national rank, averaged to counties with 2019-2023 tract population; years: 2023 release (version 4.0.1; built on ACS 2019-2023); weights: 2019-2023 tract population
  - County Health Rankings. County Health Rankings 2024, infant mortality (infant deaths per 1,000 live births, 2015 to 2021), counties with at least 20 infant deaths; years: 2024 release; weights: births (County Health Rankings denominator)
- Canonical URL: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/infant-mortality
- Report: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/infant-mortality/report
- Markdown: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/infant-mortality/report.md
- BibTeX key: singh2026infantmortality

```bibtex
@misc{singh2026infantmortality,
  author = {Singh, Vishal},
  title = {Infant mortality},
  year = {2026},
  url = {https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/infant-mortality},
  note = {In ZIP Code Destiny. Published 9 October 2026.}
}
```

## Principal estimates

The facts the dek and the opening prose cite, in order of appearance.

| Estimand | Population | Period | Value | Interval | n | Weights | Source | Fact id |
| --- | --- | --- | ---: | --- | ---: | --- | --- | --- |
| crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births in Massachusetts | 2018 to 2022 | 3.7 | 95% CI 3.5 to 3.9 | 1,260 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death | imr_state_low |
| the denominator of an infant mortality rate (a definition) | all live births | all years (a definition) | 1,000 |   |   | none (definition) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death | per_1000 |
| crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births in Mississippi | 2018 to 2022 | 8.7 | 95% CI 8.3 to 9.2 | 1,564 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death | imr_state_high |
| crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births in the 50 states and DC | 2018 to 2022 | 5.5 | 95% CI 5.5 to 5.6 | 102,503 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death | imr_natl |
| count of counties | named counties with a published death count in every year 2018 to 2022 | infant deaths and live births in 2018 to 2022 | 240 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death | counties_used |
| births-weighted mean of county rates (the pooled rate), bootstrap interval over counties | live births in the least deprived quarter of the counties used, by county deprivation rank | 2018 to 2022 | 3.9 | 95% CI 3.7 to 4.1 | 60 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death | imr_q1 |
| births-weighted mean of county rates (the pooled rate), bootstrap interval over counties | live births in the most deprived quarter of the counties used, by county deprivation rank | 2018 to 2022 | 7.2 | 95% CI 6.7 to 7.6 | 60 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death | imr_q4 |
| crude rate from state counts, normal interval | live births to Black mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in the United States, states with a published count | 2018 and 2019 | 10.3 | 95% CI 10.1 to 10.5 | 12,953 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death | imr_black |
| crude rate from state counts, normal interval | live births to white mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in the United States, states with a published count | 2018 and 2019 | 4.7 | 95% CI 4.7 to 4.8 | 26,516 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death | imr_white |

## Findings

Infant mortality in 2018 to 2022 was 8.7 deaths per 1,000 live births in Mississippi and 3.7 in Massachusetts and New Hampshire, against 5.5 for the United States. Among the 240 large counties that publish a death count in every year, the rate rises from 3.9 in the least deprived quarter of counties to 7.2 in the most deprived. Requiring a count in every year leaves out the counties whose deaths are withheld in any year. In 2018 and 2019, the only years for which the linked birth and infant death file reports the mother's race, the rate was 10.3 for infants of Black mothers and 4.7 for infants of white mothers.

These are rates for states, counties and groups of births. They describe where and among whom infants died and say nothing about why a particular infant did. The conditions that come before many infant deaths, low birthweight and preterm birth, are in Chapter 2.1, Birthweight and preterm birth (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/birthweight-and-preterm-birth), which also shows infant mortality for Black and white mothers by county deprivation. The fall in the number of births is in Chapter 2.4, Where births are falling (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/where-births-are-falling).

### What the rate counts and where the numbers come from

An infant death is the death of a baby before its first birthday. The infant mortality rate divides such deaths by live births and is reported here as deaths per 1,000. It is a crude rate, with no adjustment for the age or health of mothers. Researchers also split infant deaths by age. Neonatal deaths occur before 28 days of age, and postneonatal deaths occur from that age to the first birthday. A comparison of the United States with European countries found that the American disadvantage is concentrated in the postneonatal period and among infants of lower socioeconomic status.[1]

The numbers come from the linked birth and infant death records on CDC WONDER, which match each infant death certificate to the infant's birth certificate.[2] State files cover all 51 jurisdictions, and WONDER publishes every state total in full. They record 102,503 infant deaths among 18.5 million live births in 2018 to 2022. County files name only counties of 250,000 residents or more, pool every other county in a state into one row, and withhold any county cell with fewer than 10 deaths. A withheld cell is missing, not zero, and nothing in this chapter is derived from a total minus the cells that are published. The state file for 2021 gives a national rate of 5.44, which is the rate NCHS reports for that year.[2]

 (Note: WONDER weights infant deaths in the linked file, so a count can differ from the number of death records, and the age groups from a total, by rounding.)

### State rates vary widely and most of the highest are in the South

Mississippi has the highest state rate, 8.7 (95% CI 8.3 to 9.2). Massachusetts, at 3.7 (95% CI 3.5 to 3.9), and New Hampshire, at 3.7 (95% CI 3.2 to 4.2), have the lowest rates, and their intervals overlap. The ratio of the rate in Mississippi to the rate in Massachusetts is 2.4 (95% CI 2.2 to 2.6) (Table 1). Arkansas, Louisiana and Alabama follow Mississippi.

The Census South region holds 7 of the 10 states with the highest rates and 17 of the 51 jurisdictions. The remaining states in that group are Ohio, South Dakota and Indiana.

Pooled over births, the rate in the South is 6.3 (95% CI 5.9 to 6.9) against 5.1 (95% CI 4.6 to 5.7) in the rest of the country, a ratio of 1.2 (95% CI 1.1 to 1.4). Within the rest, the Midwest has 6.1 (95% CI 5.5 to 6.5), close to the South, while the Northeast has 4.5 (95% CI 3.9 to 5.2) and the West 4.6 (95% CI 4.3 to 5.3). Intervals resample whole states.

Of the 51 jurisdictions, 21 have an interval entirely above the national rate and 16 have one entirely below it. The others cannot be told apart from the national rate on these counts. The pooled period includes the pandemic years, but no single year sets the pooled rates. The national rate was lowest in 2020, at 5.4, and highest in 2018, at 5.7.

Table 1. Infant mortality ran from 3.7 per 1,000 in Massachusetts and New Hampshire to 8.7 in Mississippi

### Counties with high rates are concentrated in the South

WONDER names only 261 counties in its linked file, which is too few to map infant mortality. County Health Rankings, from the same NCHS vital statistics, publishes a rate for every county with at least 20 infant deaths in the period. It gives 1,206 counties a rate for infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 (Table 2). That period is not WONDER's, so the two sources are compared before the map is used. Across the 240 large counties that both cover, the two sets of county rates correlate at 0.980 (95% CI 0.974 to 0.985).

Of the mapped counties in the highest tenth of rates, 85.1% are in the South, which holds 49.3% of the mapped counties. Mississippi holds 25 of those counties, more than any other state. The 1,937 gray counties had fewer than 20 infant deaths in the period, which in practice means small counties. Gray is not zero, and the tooltip gives the reason. The key runs from 3.7 to 10.6, the fifth to ninety-fifth percentile of the mapped county rates, and the end colors include the counties beyond those limits. The highest county rates rest on few deaths, so a single county's rate is imprecise and the pattern across many counties is what the map shows.

Table 2. 85.1% of the counties in the highest tenth of infant mortality rates are in the South, which holds 49.3% of the 1,206 counties that publish a rate

### Infant mortality rises with county deprivation

To place counties on one scale, each census tract carries its Area Deprivation Index national rank, which orders neighborhoods by deprivation with a higher rank meaning more deprived.[3] A county's rank is the average of its tracts' ranks weighted by population, the same measure used in Chapter 2.1, Birthweight and preterm birth (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/birthweight-and-preterm-birth). That chapter cuts its quartiles within the larger set of counties that WONDER natality names, and the quartiles here are cut within the counties used below. The quartile edges differ, so quartile rates in the two chapters are not directly comparable. The gradient uses the 240 of the 261 named counties that publish a death count in every year from 2018 to 2022. They hold 62.3% of births in the United States. The quarters here are quarters of these large counties, so the most deprived quarter is relative to large counties and not to the nation.

Their ranks run from 3 to 84, while 712 counties in the country rank above the highest of them. Those counties are home to 3.3% of residents, and every one has fewer than 250,000 residents, so WONDER does not name them. The most deprived large county is less deprived than the most deprived places in the nation, which is part of why the County Health Rankings check below matters.

A county-year with fewer than 10 deaths is withheld, which makes a county's published years its high years. Pooling a county over only those years would overstate its rate, so a county with any withheld year is left out whole. That removes 21 counties, which hold 2.6% of births in the named counties and account for 44 withheld county-years. Each of those holds fewer than 10 deaths, so together they could hold at most 0.6% of infant deaths in the named counties. The wider problem of what suppression leaves out of death data is the subject of Chapter 10.3, Suppressed counties in death data (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/suppressed-counties-in-death-data).

The rate rises across the quarters of counties, from 3.9 (95% CI 3.7 to 4.1) in the least deprived to 7.2 (95% CI 6.7 to 7.6) in the most deprived (Table 3). The difference is 3.3 (95% CI 2.8 to 3.8) deaths per 1,000, and the rate in the most deprived quarter is 1.9 (95% CI 1.7 to 2.0) times the rate in the least deprived. Across all of these counties the rate moves with the rank, with a births-weighted correlation of 0.80 (95% CI 0.73 to 0.86). The slope is 0.63 (95% CI 0.54 to 0.71) deaths per 1,000 for each 10-point step in the rank.

A second source reaches smaller counties. County Health Rankings rates for 2015 to 2021 cover 1,206 counties of every size that reach the floor of 20 deaths. In tenths of those counties the rate is 4.0 (95% CI 3.8 to 4.2) in the least deprived tenth and 8.8 (95% CI 8.1 to 9.5) in the most deprived, with a correlation of 0.76 (95% CI 0.71 to 0.80). The line is not monotone: it rises over the lower deciles and dips across the eighth and ninth before the most deprived tenth. The interval is wider in the most deprived tenth, whose counties have fewer births.

Table 3. Infant mortality rises from 3.9 per 1,000 in the least deprived quarter of large counties to 7.2 in the most deprived

#### The rise holds within states and within groups of mothers

Counties in the South have higher deprivation ranks and higher rates, so the rise could come from differences between states alone. Comparing counties inside the same state, with a fixed effect for each state, the slope is 0.62 (95% CI 0.47 to 0.84) deaths per 1,000 for each 10-point step, nearly the same as across all counties (Table 4). It is also nearly the same when only births in 2018 and 2019 are used, at 0.62 (95% CI 0.52 to 0.71), the only years for which WONDER reports the mother's race.

For births to white mothers, in the 203 counties that publish them in both years and hold 93.9% of those births, the slope is 0.36 (95% CI 0.29 to 0.44). For births to Black mothers, in the 115 counties that do and hold 82.5% of those births, it is 0.82 (95% CI 0.62 to 1.01). The white slope is smaller than the slope for all births, and the Black slope is larger than the white slope.

Counties with higher ranks also have a larger share of births to Black mothers, 11.1% of births in the least deprived quarter and 31.1% in the most deprived in 2018 and 2019. The slope for all births therefore combines a rise within each group with a shift in the mix of mothers. A slope across counties describes places. It does not say that a family moved to a less deprived county would see a different outcome.

Table 4. The rise with county deprivation holds within states and for births to white mothers and to Black mothers, at 0.63 deaths per 1,000 for each 10-point step across all births

### The Black-white gap appears in every state that publishes both groups

The linked file reports the mother's race only for 2018 and 2019, and WONDER counts mothers by single race, with Hispanic mothers included in each group. In those years the rate was 10.3 (95% CI 10.1 to 10.5) deaths per 1,000 births to Black mothers, 4.7 (95% CI 4.7 to 4.8) for white mothers and 3.9 (95% CI 3.7 to 4.1) for Asian or Pacific Islander mothers, against 5.6 for all mothers (Table 5). The Black rate is 2.2 (95% CI 2.1 to 2.2) times the white rate, a difference of 5.6 (95% CI 5.4 to 5.8) deaths per 1,000. The Black and white rates are the two printed in Chapter 2.1, Birthweight and preterm birth (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/birthweight-and-preterm-birth), computed from the same state files.

WONDER withholds a state-year cell with fewer than 10 deaths. The withheld cells hold 1.0% of births to Black mothers, 0.1% of births to white mothers and 6.7% of births to Asian or Pacific Islander mothers, so those rates describe almost all of the births in each group. For American Indian or Alaska Native mothers the situation differs. WONDER withholds 66 of the 102 state-year cells, and the published cells hold only 65.6% of their births. A pooled rate over those cells would describe the states with the most deaths, so none is shown.

Table 5. Infant mortality in 2018 and 2019 was 10.3 per 1,000 for Black mothers and 4.7 for white mothers, a ratio of 2.2

Infants of Black mothers died at a higher rate than infants of white mothers in each of the 36 states that publish both groups in both years, which hold 98.0% of births to Black mothers (Table 6). In none of them does the interval for one group touch the interval for the other. The ratio has a median of 2.1 across these states. It is smallest in Mississippi, at 1.7 (95% CI 1.4 to 1.9), and largest in Delaware, at 3.2 (95% CI 2.3 to 4.7).

Mississippi has the smallest ratio and also the highest white rate of the states shown, 6.7 (95% CI 5.8 to 7.5). The lowest white rate is 3.2 (95% CI 2.9 to 3.5), in New Jersey. The white rate itself therefore differs across states, and the state ranking in Table 1 is not only a difference in racial composition.

Table 6. Black mothers' infants died at a higher rate than white mothers' in all 36 states that publish both, by a median ratio of 2.1

A rate for a racial group in a state averages over mothers whose circumstances differ greatly, so these comparisons do not identify which circumstances matter. Chapter 2.1, Birthweight and preterm birth (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/birthweight-and-preterm-birth) reports studies of income support and insurance during pregnancy and the birth outcomes that precede these deaths.

### Age at death is published for only a few counties

WONDER's county file splits infant deaths into five age groups, from under an hour to the end of the first year. It withholds each county-year-age cell with fewer than 10 deaths, which is 4,328 of the 6,525 cells for the named counties. Only 14 counties publish every cell in every year (Table 7). They are among the largest counties and hold 23.6% of births in the named counties. The age groups cannot be summed for any other county without filling in withheld cells, so this section covers these counties and no others.

In these counties the neonatal rate is 3.6 (95% CI 3.1 to 4.1) and the postneonatal rate is 1.6 (95% CI 1.4 to 1.9). Neonatal deaths are 68.7% (95% CI 67.4% to 70.2%) of infant deaths, and 42.3% (95% CI 40.5% to 44.2%) of infant deaths occur on the first day of life.

Both rates are higher where the deprivation rank is higher. Dividing the 14 counties at the median rank, the neonatal rate in the more deprived group is 1.5 (95% CI 1.2 to 1.8) times the rate in the less deprived group, and the postneonatal rate is 1.6 (95% CI 1.3 to 2.1) times. The intervals overlap, so these counties cannot show whether the postneonatal rate rises faster with deprivation. The comparison of the United States with Europe placed the American disadvantage in the postneonatal period, among infants of lower socioeconomic status.[1] These counties have no European comparison and too few observations to test that.

Table 7. Neonatal deaths made up 68.7% of infant deaths in the 14 counties that publish every age group, and both rates are higher where deprivation is higher

### Infant mortality rises with deprivation under all four rankings

Table 8 ranks the 1,206 counties that have a County Health Rankings rate and all four rankings in four ways. Ranked by the ADI on this common sample, the rate is 4.0 (95% CI 3.8 to 4.2) deaths per 1,000 in the least deprived tenth and 8.7 (95% CI 8.0 to 9.4) in the most deprived, and the rank correlation between tenth and rate is +0.95. Under the standardized index the rate is 4.0 (95% CI 3.8 to 4.2) in the least deprived tenth and 7.0 (95% CI 6.1 to 8.3) in the most deprived, with a correlation of +0.92, and it is highest in the eighth tenth. Under median household income the two ends are 3.9 (95% CI 3.7 to 4.1) and 9.0 (95% CI 8.5 to 9.4), with a correlation of +1.00, and under the bachelor's degree share they are 4.3 (95% CI 4.1 to 4.6) and 7.8 (95% CI 7.2 to 8.5), with a correlation of +0.99, so none of the three counts as a change under the book's rule (Chapter 9.1, How far one ranking goes (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/how-far-one-ranking-goes)).

Table 8. Infant mortality is steadily worse toward the more deprived end under the ADI and under each of the three other rankings

### What these data cannot show

The county gradient describes the 240 largest counties, which hold 62.3% of births. WONDER pools the rest by state. The County Health Rankings check reaches smaller counties but leaves out those that do not reach 20 deaths in the period, and the counties just above that floor have the least precise rates on the map. The county rates describe counties that publish a figure, which are not a sample of all counties, and the age-at-death figure covers only 14 of them.

Sources and periods differ, and each is named where it appears. WONDER covers 2018 to 2022 for states and counties and 2018 and 2019 for mother's race, and County Health Rankings covers 2015 to 2021. WONDER's race groups are single races that include Hispanic mothers, so its white group is not the non-Hispanic white group of other sources, and Hispanic origin is not in the files used here. American Indian or Alaska Native mothers are not shown.

The Area Deprivation Index understates deprivation in high-cost cities (Chapter 1.1, What the deprivation index measures (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/anatomy-of-deprivation)) and draws on the American Community Survey for 2019 to 2023, while the deaths are from 2018 to 2022. A county's rank averages over tracts that differ within the county, and it describes no family's circumstances. Patterns across counties and states are patterns of places, not of individual infants, a limit known as ecological inference.

Finally, the files carry no cause of death, no gestational age or birthweight, and no information on mothers beyond race, so nothing here identifies a mechanism. The rates are crude period rates, and 2020 to 2022 include the pandemic. Intervals for state and race rates treat deaths as independent and leave out differences between places within each rate, while the county figures resample whole counties.

## Tables

### Table 1. Infant mortality ran from 3.7 per 1,000 in Massachusetts and New Hampshire to 8.7 in Mississippi

Infant deaths per 1,000, by state and DC, 2018 to 2022; the first tab maps the rates and the second ranks them with intervals

#### Table 1.1. Map of states

7 of the 10 states with the highest infant mortality rates are in the South, which has 6.3 deaths per 1,000 against 5.1 elsewhere

Infant deaths per 1,000, by state and DC, 2018 to 2022

| conf_high | conf_low | n | rate | state |
| ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | --- |
| 6.74 | 5.35 | 48,103 | 6.05 | AK |
| 7.49 | 6.87 | 290,226 | 7.18 | AL |
| 8.03 | 7.22 | 180,269 | 7.63 | AR |
| 5.83 | 5.36 | 393,508 | 5.60 | AZ |
| 4.20 | 4.03 | 2,161,370 | 4.11 | CA |
| 5.03 | 4.54 | 312,580 | 4.79 | CO |
| 4.68 | 4.05 | 173,445 | 4.36 | CT |
| 6.69 | 5.25 | 43,900 | 5.97 | DC |
| 6.62 | 5.30 | 52,873 | 5.96 | DE |
| 6.11 | 5.82 | 1,091,908 | 5.97 | FL |
| 6.94 | 6.54 | 625,219 | 6.74 | GA |
| 5.97 | 4.95 | 80,709 | 5.46 | HI |
| 5.04 | 4.41 | 184,889 | 4.73 | IA |
| 5.38 | 4.55 | 109,817 | 4.96 | ID |
| 5.98 | 5.62 | 678,780 | 5.80 | IL |
| 7.04 | 6.53 | 400,716 | 6.79 | IN |
| 6.26 | 5.54 | 175,138 | 5.90 | KS |
| 6.15 | 5.56 | 263,188 | 5.86 | KY |
| 7.88 | 7.25 | 289,800 | 7.57 | LA |
| 3.88 | 3.48 | 342,375 | 3.68 | MA |
| 6.18 | 5.67 | 346,879 | 5.92 | MD |
| 6.33 | 5.12 | 59,728 | 5.73 | ME |
| 6.62 | 6.19 | 529,293 | 6.40 | MI |
| 4.85 | 4.38 | 325,254 | 4.61 | MN |
| 6.46 | 5.94 | 353,119 | 6.20 | MO |
| 9.17 | 8.31 | 178,940 | 8.74 | MS |
| 5.40 | 4.25 | 55,789 | 4.82 | MT |
| 6.97 | 6.55 | 596,437 | 6.76 | NC |
| 5.80 | 4.55 | 50,828 | 5.17 | ND |
| 5.95 | 5.12 | 123,488 | 5.54 | NE |
| 4.20 | 3.23 | 60,327 | 3.71 | NH |
| 4 | 3.66 | 503,152 | 3.83 | NJ |
| 5.90 | 5.03 | 110,907 | 5.46 | NM |
| 5.70 | 5.01 | 171,286 | 5.35 | NV |
| 4.36 | 4.11 | 1,075,631 | 4.23 | NY |
| 7.14 | 6.74 | 656,808 | 6.94 | OH |
| 7.13 | 6.48 | 243,308 | 6.81 | OK |
| 4.60 | 4.03 | 204,273 | 4.31 | OR |
| 5.89 | 5.52 | 663,470 | 5.70 | PA |
| 5.19 | 4.01 | 51,515 | 4.60 | RI |
| 7.24 | 6.63 | 284,416 | 6.93 | SC |
| 7.46 | 6.11 | 56,872 | 6.79 | SD |
| 6.85 | 6.35 | 403,872 | 6.60 | TN |
| 5.56 | 5.35 | 1,887,748 | 5.45 | TX |
| 5.45 | 4.87 | 232,217 | 5.16 | UT |
| 6.08 | 5.65 | 483,476 | 5.87 | VA |
| 4.94 | 3.39 | 26,626 | 4.17 | VT |
| 4.64 | 4.24 | 421,310 | 4.44 | WA |
| 6.09 | 5.55 | 309,792 | 5.82 | WI |
| 7.45 | 6.35 | 87,834 | 6.90 | WV |
| 6.61 | 4.93 | 31,541 | 5.77 | WY |

#### Table 1.2. States ranked

Mississippi's rate of 8.7 is 2.4 times Massachusetts's 3.7

Infant deaths per 1,000 with 95% intervals, by state and DC, 2018 to 2022, ranked from the highest rate

| conf_high | conf_low | n | rate | state |
| ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | --- |
| 9.17 | 8.31 | 178,940 | 8.74 | Mississippi |
| 8.03 | 7.22 | 180,269 | 7.63 | Arkansas |
| 7.88 | 7.25 | 289,800 | 7.57 | Louisiana |
| 7.49 | 6.87 | 290,226 | 7.18 | Alabama |
| 7.14 | 6.74 | 656,808 | 6.94 | Ohio |
| 7.24 | 6.63 | 284,416 | 6.93 | South Carolina |
| 7.45 | 6.35 | 87,834 | 6.90 | West Virginia |
| 7.13 | 6.48 | 243,308 | 6.81 | Oklahoma |
| 7.46 | 6.11 | 56,872 | 6.79 | South Dakota |
| 7.04 | 6.53 | 400,716 | 6.79 | Indiana |
| 6.97 | 6.55 | 596,437 | 6.76 | North Carolina |
| 6.94 | 6.54 | 625,219 | 6.74 | Georgia |
| 6.85 | 6.35 | 403,872 | 6.60 | Tennessee |
| 6.62 | 6.19 | 529,293 | 6.40 | Michigan |
| 6.46 | 5.94 | 353,119 | 6.20 | Missouri |
| 6.74 | 5.35 | 48,103 | 6.05 | Alaska |
| 6.69 | 5.25 | 43,900 | 5.97 | District of Columbia |
| 6.11 | 5.82 | 1,091,908 | 5.97 | Florida |
| 6.62 | 5.30 | 52,873 | 5.96 | Delaware |
| 6.18 | 5.67 | 346,879 | 5.92 | Maryland |
| 6.26 | 5.54 | 175,138 | 5.90 | Kansas |
| 6.08 | 5.65 | 483,476 | 5.87 | Virginia |
| 6.15 | 5.56 | 263,188 | 5.86 | Kentucky |
| 6.09 | 5.55 | 309,792 | 5.82 | Wisconsin |
| 5.98 | 5.62 | 678,780 | 5.80 | Illinois |
| 6.61 | 4.93 | 31,541 | 5.77 | Wyoming |
| 6.33 | 5.12 | 59,728 | 5.73 | Maine |
| 5.89 | 5.52 | 663,470 | 5.70 | Pennsylvania |
| 5.83 | 5.36 | 393,508 | 5.60 | Arizona |
| 5.95 | 5.12 | 123,488 | 5.54 | Nebraska |
| 5.97 | 4.95 | 80,709 | 5.46 | Hawaii |
| 5.90 | 5.03 | 110,907 | 5.46 | New Mexico |
| 5.56 | 5.35 | 1,887,748 | 5.45 | Texas |
| 5.70 | 5.01 | 171,286 | 5.35 | Nevada |
| 5.80 | 4.55 | 50,828 | 5.17 | North Dakota |
| 5.45 | 4.87 | 232,217 | 5.16 | Utah |
| 5.38 | 4.55 | 109,817 | 4.96 | Idaho |
| 5.40 | 4.25 | 55,789 | 4.82 | Montana |
| 5.03 | 4.54 | 312,580 | 4.79 | Colorado |
| 5.04 | 4.41 | 184,889 | 4.73 | Iowa |
| 4.85 | 4.38 | 325,254 | 4.61 | Minnesota |
| 5.19 | 4.01 | 51,515 | 4.60 | Rhode Island |
| 4.64 | 4.24 | 421,310 | 4.44 | Washington |
| 4.68 | 4.05 | 173,445 | 4.36 | Connecticut |
| 4.60 | 4.03 | 204,273 | 4.31 | Oregon |
| 4.36 | 4.11 | 1,075,631 | 4.23 | New York |
| 4.94 | 3.39 | 26,626 | 4.17 | Vermont |
| 4.20 | 4.03 | 2,161,370 | 4.11 | California |
| 4 | 3.66 | 503,152 | 3.83 | New Jersey |
| 4.20 | 3.23 | 60,327 | 3.71 | New Hampshire |
| 3.88 | 3.48 | 342,375 | 3.68 | Massachusetts |

Note: Rates are infant deaths in 2018 to 2022 over live births in the same years, pooled over the five years, for the 51 jurisdictions. WONDER publishes every state total in full, so no state has a withheld cell.

Note: Intervals are 95% intervals on the death counts (gamma for small counts and normal for large ones, the NCHS convention described in the methods note); they treat deaths as independent and leave out differences between counties within a state.

Note: WONDER weights infant deaths, so a total can differ from the unweighted number of records by rounding.

Source: CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death, 2018-2022; crude rates from full counts

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_by_state.json

### Table 2. 85.1% of the counties in the highest tenth of infant mortality rates are in the South, which holds 49.3% of the 1,206 counties that publish a rate

Infant deaths per 1,000, by county, County Health Rankings 2024, infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021

No inline rows: the values of Table 2 are in https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/infant-mortality/imr_county_map.json.

Note: County Health Rankings publishes a county's infant mortality rate only from 20 infant deaths in the period, which leaves out most small counties and is the same floor the book uses for death maps. Gray counties are not zero; they are counties where the rate cannot be published.

Note: The period is 2015 to 2021, not the 2018 to 2022 of the WONDER figures. Across the 240 large counties the two sources correlate at 0.980.

Note: The key runs from 3.7 to 10.6, the fifth to ninety-fifth percentile of the mapped county rates. Counties beyond either end take the end color, so the end colors include the tails of the distribution.

Note: Connecticut is shown as its eight legacy counties, the coding of the source. Alaska is drawn. Puerto Rico is not drawn.

Source: County Health Rankings 2024 (NCHS mortality and natality counts; window and 20-death rule as in the CHR 2024 technical documentation, see the dataset note), infant deaths and live births in 2015-2021; crude rates from full counts

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_county_map.json

### Table 3. Infant mortality rises from 3.9 per 1,000 in the least deprived quarter of large counties to 7.2 in the most deprived

Infant deaths per 1,000 by county deprivation, WONDER 2018 to 2022 for the large counties and County Health Rankings 2015 to 2021 for all counties with a rate

#### Table 3.1. Large counties, 2018 to 2022

Across 240 large counties the infant mortality rate moves with the deprivation rank, a correlation of 0.80

Infant deaths per 1,000 against the county deprivation rank, one dot per county, 2018 to 2022, with births-weighted quartile means

| adi | births | conf_high | conf_low | county | imr |
| ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | --- | ---: |
| 27.27 | 24712 | 5.68 | 3.95 | Ada County, ID | 4.82 |
| 31.50 | 30996 | 6.27 | 4.63 | Adams County, CO | 5.45 |
| 7.82 | 87316 | 3.81 | 3.04 | Alameda County, CA | 3.42 |
| 60.06 | 61976 | 6.97 | 5.71 | Allegheny County, PA | 6.34 |
| 67.85 | 26159 | 8.09 | 6.05 | Allen County, IN | 7.07 |
| 37.23 | 18908 | 6.14 | 4.06 | Anchorage Borough, AK | 5.02 |
| 26.31 | 34328 | 5.23 | 3.80 | Anne Arundel County, MD | 4.52 |
| 41.11 | 20680 | 5.51 | 3.63 | Anoka County, MN | 4.50 |
| 25.25 | 37521 | 5.53 | 4.12 | Arapahoe County, CO | 4.82 |
| 54.06 | 13899 | 7.64 | 4.95 | Atlantic County, NJ | 6.19 |
| 42.28 | 47439 | 7.24 | 5.79 | Baltimore County, MD | 6.51 |
| 64.94 | 37283 | 9.78 | 7.87 | Baltimore city, MD | 8.82 |
| 64.57 | 30340 | 7.68 | 5.83 | Bell County, TX | 6.76 |
| 19.42 | 45255 | 3.32 | 2.34 | Bergen County, NJ | 2.83 |
| 60.09 | 22847 | 7.10 | 5.07 | Berks County, PA | 6.08 |
| 54.44 | 33665 | 5.94 | 4.40 | Bernalillo County, NM | 5.17 |
| 59.17 | 130037 | 6.54 | 5.69 | Bexar County, TX | 6.11 |
| 49.43 | 23485 | 6.16 | 4.31 | Brazoria County, TX | 5.24 |
| 48.90 | 25720 | 7.23 | 5.29 | Brevard County, FL | 6.26 |
| 34.02 | 27992 | 5.09 | 3.55 | Bristol County, MA | 4.32 |
| 31.09 | 91577 | 5.39 | 4.48 | Bronx County, NY | 4.94 |
| 40.97 | 105205 | 5.56 | 4.69 | Broward County, FL | 5.12 |
| 29.71 | 28196 | 4.12 | 2.73 | Bucks County, PA | 3.37 |
| 40.10 | 22548 | 4.61 | 2.97 | Burlington County, NJ | 3.73 |
| 58.33 | 21858 | 8.50 | 6.23 | Butler County, OH | 7.37 |
| 76.41 | 14759 | 13.47 | 9.97 | Caddo Parish, LA | 11.72 |
| 54.47 | 30660 | 6.48 | 4.80 | Camden County, NJ | 5.64 |
| 84.05 | 30306 | 6.10 | 4.46 | Cameron County, TX | 5.28 |
| 35.04 | 24786 | 7.41 | 5.42 | Charleston County, SC | 6.41 |
| 56.20 | 18040 | 8.44 | 5.97 | Chatham County, GA | 7.21 |
| 26.68 | 27190 | 4.92 | 3.39 | Chester County, PA | 4.16 |
| 40.91 | 19995 | 7.02 | 4.88 | Chesterfield County, VA | 5.95 |
| 39.24 | 128486 | 5.71 | 4.92 | Clark County, NV | 5.32 |
| 26.64 | 27580 | 4.93 | 3.41 | Clark County, WA | 4.17 |
| 71.44 | 18045 | 9.94 | 7.24 | Clayton County, GA | 8.59 |
| 59.97 | 13801 | 8.41 | 5.57 | Cleveland County, OK | 6.88 |
| 37.38 | 44285 | 6.11 | 4.73 | Cobb County, GA | 5.42 |
| 26.55 | 59079 | 4.58 | 3.55 | Collin County, TX | 4.06 |
| 12.71 | 58952 | 4.22 | 3.24 | Contra Costa County, CA | 3.73 |
| 47.08 | 282978 | 6.27 | 5.70 | Cook County, IL | 5.99 |
| 30.73 | 13937 | 6.02 | 3.66 | Cumberland County, ME | 4.74 |
| 72.53 | 26502 | 9.36 | 7.17 | Cumberland County, NC | 8.26 |
| 69.33 | 66965 | 8.62 | 7.27 | Cuyahoga County, OH | 7.94 |
| 35.84 | 25220 | 4.34 | 2.83 | Dakota County, MN | 3.53 |
| 51.84 | 184635 | 6.68 | 5.96 | Dallas County, TX | 6.32 |
| 37.44 | 28463 | 5.66 | 4.04 | Dane County, WI | 4.85 |
| 62.88 | 16619 | 7.79 | 5.33 | Dauphin County, PA | 6.56 |
| 38 | 49796 | 7.43 | 5.99 | Davidson County, TN | 6.71 |
| 26.64 | 24783 | 5.75 | 4.01 | Davis County, UT | 4.88 |
| 44.32 | 51244 | 7.61 | 6.17 | DeKalb County, GA | 6.89 |
| 47.79 | 31972 | 7.26 | 5.51 | Delaware County, PA | 6.38 |
| 31.79 | 52331 | 4.76 | 3.65 | Denton County, TX | 4.20 |
| 21.31 | 45889 | 5.36 | 4.10 | Denver County, CO | 4.73 |
| 16.41 | 43900 | 6.69 | 5.25 | District of Columbia, DC | 5.97 |
| 55.92 | 40205 | 6.94 | 5.40 | Douglas County, NE | 6.17 |
| 34.30 | 49162 | 4.39 | 3.30 | DuPage County, IL | 3.84 |
| 41.88 | 20648 | 6.90 | 4.82 | Durham County, NC | 5.86 |
| 55.54 | 63717 | 8.47 | 7.10 | Duval County, FL | 7.78 |
| 61.83 | 28385 | 9.38 | 7.25 | East Baton Rouge Parish, LA | 8.31 |
| 32.73 | 45669 | 6.25 | 4.88 | El Paso County, CO | 5.56 |
| 74.50 | 56931 | 4.90 | 3.81 | El Paso County, TX | 4.36 |
| 62.29 | 47598 | 6.99 | 5.57 | Erie County, NY | 6.28 |
| 74.57 | 13589 | 9.12 | 6.18 | Erie County, PA | 7.65 |
| 62.76 | 18763 | 9.27 | 6.72 | Escambia County, FL | 7.99 |
| 21.97 | 42043 | 4.40 | 3.22 | Essex County, MA | 3.81 |
| 33.03 | 49864 | 5.40 | 4.19 | Essex County, NJ | 4.79 |
| 14.29 | 64587 | 4.28 | 3.33 | Fairfax County, VA | 3.81 |
| 26.85 | 49089 | 4.33 | 3.24 | Fairfield County, CT | 3.79 |
| 55.11 | 18798 | 6.89 | 4.71 | Fayette County, KY | 5.80 |
| 62.43 | 22019 | 9.61 | 7.19 | Forsyth County, NC | 8.40 |
| 37.63 | 45977 | 5 | 3.79 | Fort Bend County, TX | 4.39 |
| 55.13 | 89264 | 8.11 | 6.97 | Franklin County, OH | 7.54 |
| 46.34 | 70267 | 6.50 | 5.36 | Fresno County, CA | 5.93 |
| 36.01 | 61856 | 7.68 | 6.36 | Fulton County, GA | 7.02 |
| 50.28 | 19552 | 6.29 | 4.25 | Galveston County, TX | 5.27 |
| 73.71 | 22242 | 8.41 | 6.16 | Genesee County, MI | 7.28 |
| 68.78 | 16516 | 7.31 | 4.92 | Greene County, MO | 6.12 |
| 52.19 | 31893 | 6.17 | 4.56 | Greenville County, SC | 5.36 |
| 62.39 | 29763 | 9.55 | 7.45 | Guilford County, NC | 8.50 |
| 41.21 | 54430 | 6.31 | 5.04 | Gwinnett County, GA | 5.68 |
| 33.43 | 18889 | 5.80 | 3.78 | Hamilton County, IN | 4.71 |
| 59.80 | 52488 | 8.79 | 7.25 | Hamilton County, OH | 8.02 |
| 51.80 | 21724 | 7.36 | 5.25 | Hamilton County, TN | 6.31 |
| 54.48 | 24027 | 6.25 | 4.40 | Hampden County, MA | 5.33 |
| 55.59 | 326538 | 5.90 | 5.39 | Harris County, TX | 5.65 |
| 47.60 | 44945 | 5.38 | 4.10 | Hartford County, CT | 4.74 |
| 36.21 | 75308 | 5.15 | 4.17 | Hennepin County, MN | 4.66 |
| 42.82 | 18663 | 7.23 | 4.99 | Henrico County, VA | 6.11 |
| 83.04 | 69018 | 5.14 | 4.13 | Hidalgo County, TX | 4.64 |
| 45.98 | 85289 | 7.12 | 6.03 | Hillsborough County, FL | 6.58 |
| 35.48 | 20792 | 4.90 | 3.14 | Hillsborough County, NH | 3.94 |
| 11.87 | 57712 | 6.02 | 4.82 | Honolulu County, HI | 5.42 |
| 57.80 | 15979 | 7.97 | 5.43 | Horry County, SC | 6.70 |
| 19.35 | 16518 | 6.36 | 4.11 | Howard County, MD | 5.15 |
| 24.79 | 47913 | 3 | 2.09 | Hudson County, NJ | 2.55 |
| 68 | 14800 | 8.45 | 5.74 | Ingham County, MI | 7.09 |
| 64.74 | 43660 | 8.04 | 6.44 | Jackson County, MO | 7.24 |
| 62.60 | 40646 | 9.41 | 7.62 | Jefferson County, AL | 8.51 |
| 19.12 | 27859 | 5.23 | 3.67 | Jefferson County, CO | 4.45 |
| 60.18 | 47503 | 6.76 | 5.36 | Jefferson County, KY | 6.06 |
| 75.11 | 16350 | 9.52 | 6.75 | Jefferson County, TX | 8.13 |
| 60.17 | 27429 | 7.40 | 5.50 | Jefferson Parish, LA | 6.45 |
| 35.27 | 34859 | 4.71 | 3.38 | Johnson County, KS | 4.04 |
| 60.96 | 14235 | 6.76 | 4.27 | Kalamazoo County, MI | 5.41 |
| 45.72 | 29065 | 6.06 | 4.40 | Kane County, IL | 5.23 |
| 51.75 | 41330 | 6.13 | 4.71 | Kent County, MI | 5.42 |
| 52.63 | 63025 | 6.17 | 5 | Kern County, CA | 5.59 |
| 12.92 | 118597 | 4.30 | 3.59 | King County, WA | 3.95 |
| 9.96 | 177304 | 3.65 | 3.11 | Kings County, NY | 3.38 |
| 52.49 | 26154 | 6.98 | 5.10 | Knox County, TN | 6.04 |
| 52.55 | 17380 | 6.93 | 4.63 | Lake County, FL | 5.70 |
| 42.15 | 34279 | 4.79 | 3.43 | Lake County, IL | 4.11 |
| 65.67 | 27602 | 7.86 | 5.90 | Lake County, IN | 6.88 |
| 55.73 | 18657 | 6.41 | 4.31 | Lancaster County, NE | 5.36 |
| 49.56 | 34889 | 6.56 | 4.96 | Lancaster County, PA | 5.76 |
| 37.21 | 15763 | 6.03 | 3.80 | Lane County, OR | 4.82 |
| 24.18 | 15478 | 5.57 | 3.41 | Larimer County, CO | 4.39 |
| 47.61 | 35217 | 6.44 | 4.87 | Lee County, FL | 5.65 |
| 54.75 | 20497 | 6.85 | 4.76 | Lehigh County, PA | 5.81 |
| 57.97 | 14368 | 11.13 | 7.94 | Leon County, FL | 9.54 |
| 62.02 | 16300 | 7.33 | 4.88 | Lexington County, SC | 6.01 |
| 64.59 | 16003 | 7.19 | 4.75 | Lorain County, OH | 5.87 |
| 14.23 | 507627 | 4.05 | 3.70 | Los Angeles County, CA | 3.87 |
| 11.94 | 24624 | 4.27 | 2.76 | Loudoun County, VA | 3.45 |
| 67.26 | 20115 | 6.38 | 4.36 | Lubbock County, TX | 5.37 |
| 74.43 | 25684 | 10.20 | 7.87 | Lucas County, OH | 9.03 |
| 75.48 | 16015 | 7.11 | 4.69 | Luzerne County, PA | 5.81 |
| 58.72 | 44601 | 5.68 | 4.36 | Macomb County, MI | 5.02 |
| 53.80 | 21699 | 7.07 | 5 | Madison County, AL | 6.04 |
| 46.74 | 17713 | 6.75 | 4.54 | Manatee County, FL | 5.65 |
| 36.11 | 253434 | 5.68 | 5.10 | Maricopa County, AZ | 5.39 |
| 66.59 | 17607 | 8.41 | 5.91 | Marion County, FL | 7.16 |
| 67.02 | 69959 | 8.79 | 7.45 | Marion County, IN | 8.12 |
| 38.99 | 20047 | 4.91 | 3.12 | Marion County, OR | 3.94 |
| 40.70 | 73809 | 5.69 | 4.66 | Mecklenburg County, NC | 5.18 |
| 42.31 | 19125 | 5.32 | 3.41 | Merced County, CA | 4.29 |
| 42.50 | 20404 | 5.97 | 4.03 | Mercer County, NJ | 5 |
| 37.24 | 146849 | 5.11 | 4.41 | Miami-Dade County, FL | 4.76 |
| 14.53 | 81044 | 3.07 | 2.36 | Middlesex County, MA | 2.71 |
| 29.18 | 43015 | 4.40 | 3.23 | Middlesex County, NJ | 3.81 |
| 66.79 | 61939 | 9.02 | 7.58 | Milwaukee County, WI | 8.30 |
| 72.95 | 26321 | 9.38 | 7.18 | Mobile County, AL | 8.28 |
| 20.24 | 30024 | 3.76 | 2.47 | Monmouth County, NJ | 3.06 |
| 65.30 | 38357 | 6.91 | 5.34 | Monroe County, NY | 6.13 |
| 16.90 | 28437 | 5.81 | 4.17 | Monterey County, CA | 4.99 |
| 18.93 | 59475 | 5.05 | 3.97 | Montgomery County, MD | 4.51 |
| 72.95 | 31169 | 9.12 | 7.12 | Montgomery County, OH | 8.12 |
| 31.41 | 42442 | 4.40 | 3.23 | Montgomery County, PA | 3.82 |
| 43.03 | 38709 | 5.19 | 3.85 | Montgomery County, TX | 4.52 |
| 24.43 | 38803 | 4.51 | 3.27 | Multnomah County, OR | 3.89 |
| 13.81 | 69152 | 3.29 | 2.49 | Nassau County, NY | 2.89 |
| 43.82 | 30714 | 7.17 | 5.40 | New Castle County, DE | 6.28 |
| 48.10 | 42444 | 5.94 | 4.56 | New Haven County, CT | 5.25 |
| 8.92 | 75763 | 3.10 | 2.36 | New York County, NY | 2.73 |
| 14.99 | 35515 | 3.39 | 2.27 | Norfolk County, MA | 2.79 |
| 68.22 | 21911 | 6.26 | 4.33 | Nueces County, TX | 5.29 |
| 43.65 | 63665 | 5.28 | 4.21 | Oakland County, MI | 4.74 |
| 35.14 | 47818 | 3.39 | 2.42 | Ocean County, NJ | 2.91 |
| 66.32 | 55427 | 7.28 | 5.93 | Oklahoma County, OK | 6.60 |
| 67.47 | 24676 | 6.31 | 4.47 | Onondaga County, NY | 5.39 |
| 11.18 | 163437 | 3.50 | 2.95 | Orange County, CA | 3.22 |
| 44.12 | 82031 | 6.25 | 5.21 | Orange County, FL | 5.73 |
| 36.70 | 26515 | 4.50 | 3 | Orange County, NY | 3.70 |
| 51.55 | 21909 | 8.34 | 6.09 | Orleans Parish, LA | 7.21 |
| 47.66 | 23048 | 5.38 | 3.65 | Osceola County, FL | 4.51 |
| 38.83 | 73930 | 5.19 | 4.20 | Palm Beach County, FL | 4.69 |
| 55.44 | 26164 | 6.20 | 4.43 | Pasco County, FL | 5.31 |
| 34.54 | 31863 | 4.41 | 3.06 | Passaic County, NJ | 3.73 |
| 62.40 | 99523 | 7.53 | 6.49 | Philadelphia County, PA | 7.01 |
| 26.23 | 55649 | 5.73 | 4.54 | Pierce County, WA | 5.14 |
| 53.40 | 51086 | 6.21 | 4.91 | Pima County, AZ | 5.56 |
| 50.23 | 23631 | 6.63 | 4.71 | Pinal County, AZ | 5.67 |
| 48.07 | 38298 | 6.59 | 5.06 | Pinellas County, FL | 5.82 |
| 23.13 | 26014 | 4.34 | 2.85 | Plymouth County, MA | 3.54 |
| 62.59 | 41609 | 8.18 | 6.53 | Polk County, FL | 7.35 |
| 55.05 | 32415 | 5.70 | 4.17 | Polk County, IA | 4.94 |
| 33.05 | 57070 | 7.60 | 6.24 | Prince George's County, MD | 6.92 |
| 23.33 | 31727 | 5.76 | 4.20 | Prince William County, VA | 4.98 |
| 42.93 | 34996 | 6.14 | 4.60 | Providence County, RI | 5.37 |
| 68.10 | 25254 | 10.33 | 7.97 | Pulaski County, AR | 9.15 |
| 16.43 | 127498 | 4.01 | 3.35 | Queens County, NY | 3.68 |
| 46.60 | 34908 | 6.68 | 5.07 | Ramsey County, MN | 5.87 |
| 64.44 | 23223 | 8.14 | 5.98 | Richland County, SC | 7.06 |
| 15.94 | 25520 | 4.99 | 3.40 | Richmond County, NY | 4.19 |
| 28.37 | 139031 | 4.83 | 4.12 | Riverside County, CA | 4.47 |
| 21.10 | 29748 | 3.53 | 2.28 | Rockland County, NY | 2.86 |
| 41.48 | 21292 | 7.36 | 5.23 | Rutherford County, TN | 6.29 |
| 27.87 | 92812 | 5.60 | 4.68 | Sacramento County, CA | 5.14 |
| 27.27 | 77022 | 5.92 | 4.88 | Salt Lake County, UT | 5.40 |
| 31.95 | 137256 | 5.86 | 5.07 | San Bernardino County, CA | 5.46 |
| 13.98 | 190765 | 3.87 | 3.33 | San Diego County, CA | 3.60 |
| 3.15 | 39750 | 3.17 | 2.16 | San Francisco County, CA | 2.67 |
| 28.64 | 49351 | 6.08 | 4.78 | San Joaquin County, CA | 5.43 |
| 3.18 | 39199 | 3.41 | 2.35 | San Mateo County, CA | 2.88 |
| 17.02 | 27310 | 4.86 | 3.34 | Santa Barbara County, CA | 4.10 |
| 5.05 | 100305 | 3.03 | 2.39 | Santa Clara County, CA | 2.71 |
| 68.53 | 33214 | 7.85 | 6.06 | Sedgwick County, KS | 6.95 |
| 40.38 | 22970 | 6.59 | 4.65 | Seminole County, FL | 5.62 |
| 66.30 | 63231 | 9.03 | 7.61 | Shelby County, TN | 8.32 |
| 17.55 | 48396 | 4.04 | 2.98 | Snohomish County, WA | 3.51 |
| 20.56 | 24894 | 5.20 | 3.56 | Solano County, CA | 4.38 |
| 14.25 | 22266 | 3.82 | 2.33 | Sonoma County, CA | 3.01 |
| 66.48 | 19748 | 6.44 | 4.39 | Spartanburg County, SC | 5.42 |
| 40.64 | 29031 | 5.14 | 3.61 | Spokane County, WA | 4.37 |
| 44.15 | 21156 | 5.86 | 3.97 | St. Charles County, MO | 4.92 |
| 70.57 | 14336 | 10.17 | 7.13 | St. Clair County, IL | 8.65 |
| 71.71 | 16710 | 9.18 | 6.50 | St. Joseph County, IN | 7.84 |
| 53.57 | 54322 | 6.56 | 5.26 | St. Louis County, MO | 5.91 |
| 70.84 | 18927 | 10.39 | 7.68 | St. Louis city, MO | 9.03 |
| 50.80 | 16350 | 6.43 | 4.15 | St. Lucie County, FL | 5.20 |
| 33.77 | 36279 | 5.78 | 4.31 | Stanislaus County, CA | 5.04 |
| 71.61 | 19961 | 7.58 | 5.35 | Stark County, OH | 6.46 |
| 16.54 | 42713 | 4.50 | 3.32 | Suffolk County, MA | 3.91 |
| 19.74 | 77073 | 4.32 | 3.44 | Suffolk County, NY | 3.88 |
| 66.08 | 28116 | 7.07 | 5.24 | Summit County, OH | 6.15 |
| 48.92 | 136253 | 6.25 | 5.44 | Tarrant County, TX | 5.84 |
| 30.13 | 15251 | 6.53 | 4.16 | Thurston County, WA | 5.25 |
| 27.39 | 77756 | 4.53 | 3.63 | Travis County, TX | 4.08 |
| 50.21 | 33845 | 5.81 | 4.30 | Tulare County, CA | 5.05 |
| 64.81 | 43862 | 8.17 | 6.56 | Tulsa County, OK | 7.36 |
| 28.09 | 33101 | 4.57 | 3.22 | Union County, NJ | 3.90 |
| 26.08 | 58954 | 5.36 | 4.24 | Utah County, UT | 4.80 |
| 14.46 | 43372 | 4.43 | 3.27 | Ventura County, CA | 3.85 |
| 38.95 | 26879 | 6.51 | 4.72 | Virginia Beach city, VA | 5.62 |
| 55.90 | 24368 | 6.61 | 4.72 | Volusia County, FL | 5.66 |
| 32 | 64176 | 5.88 | 4.75 | Wake County, NC | 5.31 |
| 21.83 | 30945 | 4.47 | 3.10 | Washington County, OR | 3.78 |
| 28.88 | 25572 | 6.64 | 4.78 | Washoe County, NV | 5.71 |
| 40.20 | 16820 | 6.77 | 4.46 | Washtenaw County, MI | 5.53 |
| 34.74 | 19067 | 5.69 | 3.70 | Waukesha County, WI | 4.62 |
| 72.84 | 109697 | 10.22 | 9.05 | Wayne County, MI | 9.64 |
| 73.52 | 22421 | 5.87 | 4.03 | Webb County, TX | 4.95 |
| 32.31 | 22285 | 4.77 | 3.09 | Weld County, CO | 3.86 |
| 20.19 | 49530 | 4.29 | 3.22 | Westchester County, NY | 3.76 |
| 66.04 | 14352 | 6.78 | 4.30 | Westmoreland County, PA | 5.43 |
| 43.71 | 35331 | 5.87 | 4.38 | Will County, IL | 5.12 |
| 31.02 | 35958 | 4.39 | 3.12 | Williamson County, TX | 3.75 |
| 76.98 | 16888 | 9.41 | 6.70 | Winnebago County, IL | 8.05 |
| 35.79 | 42128 | 4.72 | 3.49 | Worcester County, MA | 4.11 |
| 58.42 | 23830 | 5.62 | 3.87 | York County, PA | 4.74 |

#### Table 3.2. All counties with a rate, 2015 to 2021

Across all 1,206 counties with a published rate the rate is 4.0 in the least deprived tenth and 8.8 in the most deprived

Births-weighted infant deaths per 1,000 by decile of county deprivation rank, counties with at least 20 infant deaths, County Health Rankings, 2015 to 2021

| conf_high | conf_low | decile | estimate | n |
| ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
| 4.19 | 3.83 | 1 | 4.00 | 6,629,995 |
| 5.32 | 4.88 | 2 | 5.11 | 4,124,889 |
| 5.97 | 5.51 | 3 | 5.78 | 3,070,833 |
| 6.34 | 5.86 | 4 | 6.09 | 2,816,097 |
| 7.06 | 6.37 | 5 | 6.72 | 2,100,337 |
| 7.34 | 6.70 | 6 | 7.05 | 1,871,135 |
| 8.12 | 7.12 | 7 | 7.65 | 1,376,448 |
| 7.96 | 6.73 | 8 | 7.38 | 935,698 |
| 7.92 | 6.49 | 9 | 7.24 | 748,936 |
| 9.46 | 8.05 | 10 | 8.77 | 467,875 |

Note: The counties are the 240 of 261 named counties (at least 250,000 residents) with a published death count in every year; they hold 62.3% of births in the United States. The other 21 named counties have a withheld year (44 withheld county-years in all, each of 1 to 9 deaths) and are left out whole, not pooled over their published years.

Note: A county's deprivation rank is the population-weighted mean of the Area Deprivation Index national ranks of its census tracts (1 is least deprived, 100 most), weighted by 2019-2023 tract population. Quartiles hold equal numbers of counties, so the most deprived quarter is relative to large counties and not to the nation.

Note: Quartile means are births-weighted. Intervals are 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties (replicates and seed in the methods note).

Note: The second tab uses County Health Rankings rates for counties with at least 20 infant deaths in 2015 to 2021, so it leaves out the smallest counties, and its deciles are deciles of the counties that publish.

Note: Across all the counties in the second tab the rate is 5.7 per 1,000.

Source: CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death, 2018-2022, and Area Deprivation Index 2023; crude rates from full counts, births-weighted (population-weighted); second tab: County Health Rankings 2024, 2015-2021

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_by_deprivation.json

### Table 4. The rise with county deprivation holds within states and for births to white mothers and to Black mothers, at 0.63 deaths per 1,000 for each 10-point step across all births

Change in infant deaths per 1,000 for each 10-point rise in county deprivation rank (births-weighted slope) with 95% intervals, counties of 250,000 residents or more

| conf_high | conf_low | group | label | n | slope |
| ---: | ---: | --- | --- | ---: | ---: |
| 0.715 | 0.544 | All births | All births, 2018 to 2022 (240 counties) | 240 | 0.631 |
| 0.840 | 0.467 | All births | All births, 2018 to 2022, within states (44 states) | 240 | 0.624 |
| 0.709 | 0.518 | All births | All births, 2018 and 2019 (240 counties) | 240 | 0.619 |
| 0.440 | 0.289 | White | White mothers, 2018 and 2019 (203 counties) | 203 | 0.362 |
| 1.01 | 0.617 | Black | Black mothers, 2018 and 2019 (115 counties) | 115 | 0.817 |

Note: The slope is the births-weighted regression slope of the county rate on the county deprivation rank, multiplied by ten. Intervals come from a bootstrap over counties, except the within-states row, which resamples whole states because the fixed effects pool counties within a state.

Note: Race rows use WONDER's single-race groups of any ethnicity and the 240 counties, restricted to the counties that publish the group in both 2018 and 2019: 203 counties for white mothers (93.9% of their births in the counties used) and 115 for Black mothers (82.5%).

Note: Counties with a higher deprivation rank also have a larger share of births to Black mothers, 11.1% of births in the least deprived quartile and 31.1% in the most deprived (2018 and 2019), so the slope for all births mixes the rise within each group with the shift in the mix of mothers. A county slope describes places, not individual mothers.

Source: CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death, 2018-2022 (mother's race 2018-2019), and Area Deprivation Index 2023; crude rates from full counts, births-weighted (population-weighted)

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_gradient_checks.json

### Table 5. Infant mortality in 2018 and 2019 was 10.3 per 1,000 for Black mothers and 4.7 for white mothers, a ratio of 2.2

Infant deaths per 1,000 by mother's single race, any ethnicity, United States, 2018 and 2019, with 95% intervals

| conf_high | conf_low | label | n | race | rate |
| ---: | ---: | --- | ---: | --- | ---: |
| 5.68 | 5.57 | All mothers | 7,539,252 | All | 5.63 |
| 10.49 | 10.14 | Black (any ethnicity) | 1,255,629 | Black | 10.32 |
| 4.78 | 4.66 | White (any ethnicity) | 5,617,093 | White | 4.72 |
| 4.08 | 3.74 | Asian or Pacific Islander (any ethnicity) | 524,395 | Asian | 3.91 |

Note: WONDER counts mothers by single race and includes Hispanic mothers in each group, so the white group here is not the non-Hispanic white group of County Health Rankings. Mother's race is reported in the linked file only for 2018 and 2019.

Note: A state-year cell with fewer than 10 deaths is withheld (1 to 9 deaths) and leaves both deaths and births. The withheld cells hold 1.0% of births to Black mothers, 0.1% of births to white mothers and 6.7% of births to Asian or Pacific Islander mothers.

Note: For American Indian or Alaska Native mothers WONDER withholds 66 of 102 state-year cells and the published cells hold only 65.6% of their births, so a pooled rate would describe the states with the most deaths. No rate is shown.

Note: Intervals are gamma or normal intervals on the death counts; they treat deaths as independent and leave out differences between states.

Source: CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death, 2018-2019, mother's race (crude rates from full counts)

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_by_race.json

### Table 6. Black mothers' infants died at a higher rate than white mothers' in all 36 states that publish both, by a median ratio of 2.1

Infant deaths per 1,000 by mother's single race, any ethnicity, 36 states, 2018 and 2019, with 95% intervals, ordered by the Black-white difference

| black | hi_b | hi_w | lo_b | lo_w | n_b | n_w | state | white |
| ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | --- | ---: |
| 11.67 | 14.62 | 4.78 | 9.18 | 2.66 | 6,429 | 13,325 | Delaware | 3.60 |
| 12.73 | 13.79 | 5.02 | 11.68 | 4.35 | 44,064 | 163,307 | Michigan | 4.68 |
| 12.66 | 14.45 | 5.41 | 10.87 | 4.56 | 15,162 | 103,924 | Wisconsin | 4.98 |
| 12.29 | 16.08 | 5.35 | 9.21 | 4.05 | 4,312 | 42,773 | Nebraska | 4.70 |
| 12.97 | 13.96 | 5.86 | 11.97 | 5.22 | 50,431 | 208,964 | Ohio | 5.54 |
| 12.13 | 13.09 | 5.19 | 11.18 | 4.60 | 51,108 | 213,812 | Illinois | 4.90 |
| 11.72 | 12.83 | 5.24 | 10.61 | 4.25 | 36,444 | 73,958 | South Carolina | 4.75 |
| 12.15 | 15.23 | 5.89 | 9.56 | 4.74 | 6,173 | 62,047 | Kansas | 5.32 |
| 12.69 | 14.83 | 6.76 | 10.56 | 5.63 | 10,713 | 73,285 | Oklahoma | 6.19 |
| 11.93 | 13.07 | 6.03 | 10.78 | 5.18 | 34,960 | 121,143 | Tennessee | 5.60 |
| 11.16 | 11.97 | 5.39 | 10.34 | 4.69 | 64,533 | 157,420 | North Carolina | 5.04 |
| 10.63 | 11.25 | 4.81 | 10.01 | 4.34 | 106,859 | 317,717 | Florida | 4.58 |
| 10.41 | 13.25 | 4.92 | 8.05 | 3.90 | 6,338 | 65,737 | Iowa | 4.41 |
| 10.64 | 11.30 | 5.36 | 9.97 | 4.63 | 93,071 | 145,932 | Georgia | 5 |
| 10.60 | 11.53 | 5.29 | 9.68 | 4.68 | 47,243 | 207,572 | Pennsylvania | 4.99 |
| 10.99 | 12.06 | 6.16 | 9.92 | 5.10 | 36,953 | 76,765 | Alabama | 5.63 |
| 11.47 | 13.18 | 6.81 | 9.76 | 5.50 | 15,082 | 55,070 | Arkansas | 6.16 |
| 9.34 | 10.20 | 4.48 | 8.48 | 3.60 | 48,404 | 80,981 | Maryland | 4.04 |
| 9.43 | 11.17 | 4.49 | 7.69 | 3.80 | 11,984 | 131,533 | Washington | 4.14 |
| 9.77 | 10.36 | 5 | 9.17 | 4.65 | 105,253 | 604,692 | Texas | 4.83 |
| 10.37 | 11.66 | 5.88 | 9.07 | 5.03 | 23,828 | 116,241 | Missouri | 5.45 |
| 8.11 | 9.06 | 3.53 | 7.16 | 2.94 | 34,767 | 141,428 | New Jersey | 3.23 |
| 10.82 | 11.76 | 6.54 | 9.88 | 5.38 | 46,868 | 68,003 | Louisiana | 5.96 |
| 8.63 | 9.98 | 4.29 | 7.28 | 3.52 | 18,199 | 101,548 | Minnesota | 3.91 |
| 10.64 | 11.98 | 6.42 | 9.31 | 5.59 | 22,926 | 134,146 | Indiana | 6.01 |
| 9.06 | 13.09 | 5.77 | 6.02 | 3.61 | 3,092 | 16,093 | Rhode Island | 4.60 |
| 9.18 | 10.06 | 5.17 | 8.30 | 4.43 | 45,536 | 133,860 | Virginia | 4.80 |
| 7.96 | 8.56 | 3.81 | 7.37 | 3.38 | 87,384 | 307,616 | New York | 3.60 |
| 10.99 | 12.13 | 7.45 | 9.86 | 5.85 | 32,561 | 39,548 | Mississippi | 6.65 |
| 9.33 | 11.13 | 5.79 | 7.53 | 4.55 | 11,042 | 51,823 | Nevada | 5.17 |
| 9.20 | 10.97 | 5.47 | 7.43 | 4.70 | 11,303 | 132,097 | Arizona | 5.09 |
| 8.16 | 8.89 | 4.21 | 7.43 | 3.90 | 58,843 | 677,920 | California | 4.06 |
| 9 | 10.74 | 5.50 | 7.26 | 4.58 | 11,443 | 92,669 | Kentucky | 5.04 |
| 7.66 | 9.46 | 4.28 | 6.12 | 3.23 | 11,231 | 52,490 | Connecticut | 3.75 |
| 8.25 | 10.42 | 4.97 | 6.43 | 4.17 | 8,488 | 109,155 | Colorado | 4.57 |
| 6.83 | 7.97 | 3.90 | 5.68 | 3.18 | 20,073 | 104,559 | Massachusetts | 3.54 |

Note: Only states that publish infant deaths for both groups in both years appear; they hold 98.0% of births to Black mothers. A state-year cell of 1 to 9 deaths is withheld, and a state is shown only when no cell of either group is withheld, so states with few Black births are absent.

Note: WONDER counts mothers by single race and includes Hispanic mothers in each group. Intervals are gamma or normal intervals on the death counts and leave out differences between counties within a state.

Source: CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death, 2018-2019, mother's race (crude rates from full counts)

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_black_white_states.json

### Table 7. Neonatal deaths made up 68.7% of infant deaths in the 14 counties that publish every age group, and both rates are higher where deprivation is higher

Infant deaths per 1,000 by age at death, 14 counties of 250,000 residents or more, 2018 to 2022, ordered from the least to the most deprived county rank

| age | conf_high | conf_low | county | n | rate |
| --- | ---: | ---: | --- | ---: | ---: |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 2.69 | 2.21 | Orange County, CA (rank 11) | 163,437 | 2.45 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 0.880 | 0.610 | Orange County, CA (rank 11) | 163,437 | 0.750 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 2.90 | 2.44 | San Diego County, CA (rank 14) | 190,765 | 2.67 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 1.06 | 0.790 | San Diego County, CA (rank 14) | 190,765 | 0.920 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 2.82 | 2.53 | Los Angeles County, CA (rank 14) | 507,627 | 2.67 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 1.30 | 1.11 | Los Angeles County, CA (rank 14) | 507,627 | 1.20 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 2.73 | 2.18 | Queens County, NY (rank 16) | 127,498 | 2.45 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 1.42 | 1.03 | Queens County, NY (rank 16) | 127,498 | 1.22 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 4.27 | 3.61 | San Bernardino County, CA (rank 32) | 137,256 | 3.94 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 1.71 | 1.30 | San Bernardino County, CA (rank 32) | 137,256 | 1.51 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 3.88 | 3.41 | Maricopa County, AZ (rank 36) | 253,434 | 3.65 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 1.92 | 1.59 | Maricopa County, AZ (rank 36) | 253,434 | 1.76 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 3.56 | 2.98 | Miami-Dade County, FL (rank 37) | 146,849 | 3.27 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 1.68 | 1.29 | Miami-Dade County, FL (rank 37) | 146,849 | 1.48 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 4.35 | 3.88 | Cook County, IL (rank 47) | 282,978 | 4.11 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 2.03 | 1.71 | Cook County, IL (rank 47) | 282,978 | 1.87 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 4.34 | 3.66 | Tarrant County, TX (rank 49) | 136,253 | 4 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 2.09 | 1.63 | Tarrant County, TX (rank 49) | 136,253 | 1.86 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 4.62 | 4.02 | Dallas County, TX (rank 52) | 184,635 | 4.32 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 2.20 | 1.79 | Dallas County, TX (rank 52) | 184,635 | 1.99 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 5.66 | 4.71 | Franklin County, OH (rank 55) | 89,264 | 5.19 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 2.65 | 2.01 | Franklin County, OH (rank 55) | 89,264 | 2.33 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 3.91 | 3.50 | Harris County, TX (rank 56) | 326,538 | 3.71 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 2.09 | 1.78 | Harris County, TX (rank 56) | 326,538 | 1.94 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 4.66 | 3.95 | Bexar County, TX (rank 59) | 130,037 | 4.31 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 2.03 | 1.57 | Bexar County, TX (rank 59) | 130,037 | 1.80 |
| Neonatal (under 28 days) | 6.65 | 5.72 | Wayne County, MI (rank 73) | 109,697 | 6.18 |
| Postneonatal (28 to 364 days) | 3.79 | 3.10 | Wayne County, MI (rank 73) | 109,697 | 3.45 |

Note: WONDER withholds 4,328 of 6,525 county-year-age cells in the named counties (1 to 9 deaths each), so only 14 counties publish every age group in every year: among the largest counties, holding 23.6% of births in the named counties. Counties with any withheld cell are left out whole; no group is summed from published cells alone and nothing is derived from totals.

Note: The row label gives the county deprivation rank (1 least deprived, 100 most). WONDER weights infant deaths, so the age groups can differ from a county's total by rounding.

Note: Intervals are gamma or normal intervals on each county's death count; they treat deaths as independent.

Source: CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death, 2018-2022, by age at death; crude rates from full counts

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_age_at_death.json

### Table 8. Infant mortality is steadily worse toward the more deprived end under the ADI and under each of the three other rankings

Infant deaths per 1,000 live births by tenth of counties ranked four ways, over the 1,206 counties that have all four rankings

| bin | conf_high | conf_low | estimate | n_units | ranking |
| ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | --- |
| 1 | 4.21 | 3.84 | 4.01 | 120 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 2 | 5.28 | 4.85 | 5.07 | 121 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 3 | 5.98 | 5.51 | 5.78 | 120 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 4 | 6.32 | 5.81 | 6.06 | 121 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 5 | 6.96 | 6.35 | 6.65 | 121 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 6 | 7.44 | 6.79 | 7.14 | 120 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 7 | 8.11 | 7.10 | 7.64 | 121 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 8 | 7.98 | 6.78 | 7.41 | 120 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 9 | 7.86 | 6.47 | 7.21 | 121 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 10 | 9.39 | 7.98 | 8.68 | 121 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 1 | 4.21 | 3.82 | 4.01 | 120 | Standardized index |
| 2 | 5.18 | 4.44 | 4.80 | 121 | Standardized index |
| 3 | 5.77 | 5.25 | 5.50 | 120 | Standardized index |
| 4 | 6.33 | 4.99 | 5.61 | 121 | Standardized index |
| 5 | 6.51 | 5.56 | 6.02 | 121 | Standardized index |
| 6 | 6.93 | 5.78 | 6.33 | 120 | Standardized index |
| 7 | 7.61 | 6.90 | 7.28 | 121 | Standardized index |
| 8 | 8.30 | 7.18 | 7.72 | 120 | Standardized index |
| 9 | 8.09 | 6.65 | 7.32 | 121 | Standardized index |
| 10 | 8.35 | 6.13 | 6.95 | 121 | Standardized index |
| 1 | 4.11 | 3.72 | 3.91 | 120 | Median household income |
| 2 | 5.27 | 4.56 | 4.88 | 121 | Median household income |
| 3 | 5.85 | 5.10 | 5.50 | 120 | Median household income |
| 4 | 6.26 | 5.78 | 6.02 | 121 | Median household income |
| 5 | 6.58 | 5.82 | 6.19 | 121 | Median household income |
| 6 | 7.39 | 6.62 | 7.02 | 120 | Median household income |
| 7 | 7.81 | 6.60 | 7.25 | 121 | Median household income |
| 8 | 7.89 | 6.76 | 7.38 | 120 | Median household income |
| 9 | 8.30 | 6.66 | 7.49 | 121 | Median household income |
| 10 | 9.44 | 8.55 | 8.99 | 121 | Median household income |
| 1 | 4.61 | 4.07 | 4.33 | 120 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 2 | 5.43 | 4.57 | 4.98 | 121 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 3 | 6.12 | 5.40 | 5.76 | 120 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 4 | 6.79 | 5.31 | 5.99 | 121 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 5 | 6.43 | 5.84 | 6.12 | 121 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 6 | 7.41 | 5.68 | 6.49 | 120 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 7 | 7.19 | 6.35 | 6.70 | 121 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 8 | 7.14 | 6.05 | 6.58 | 120 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 9 | 7.54 | 6.55 | 7.00 | 121 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 10 | 8.47 | 7.18 | 7.76 | 121 | Bachelor's degree share |

Note: Least and most deprived tenth: ADI 4.0 and 8.7, rank correlation +0.95; standardized index 4.0 and 7.0, +0.92; median household income 3.9 and 9.0, +1.00; bachelor's degree share 4.3 and 7.8, +0.99.

Note: The standardized index applies the ADI's coefficients to its measures after standardizing each one, so home value and income carry less weight than in the ADI. Income and degree share are single census measures, each ranked from the highest value to the lowest.

Source: County Health Rankings 2024, infant deaths and live births in 2015-2021, and Area Deprivation Index 2023; crude rates from full counts, births-weighted (population-weighted); ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 tract tables (B19013, B15003 and the 15 rebuilt ADI measures)

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/alt_rankings.json

## All estimates

Every fact in facts.json (111), sorted by id.

| Fact id | Value | Unit | Estimand | Population | Period | Interval | n | Weights | Source | Note |
| --- | ---: | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---: | --- | --- | --- |
| adi_above_pop_share | 3.3% | percent of residents | share of residents living in counties ranked above the highest county used, 2019-2023 tract population | residents of the 50 states and DC | 2019-2023 |   |   | 2019-2023 tract population | Area Deprivation Index |   |
| adi_max_used | 84 | national percentile rank (1 least deprived, 100 most) | highest county deprivation rank among the counties used | the counties used | 2019-2023 tract population weights |   | 240 counties | 2019-2023 tract population | Area Deprivation Index |   |
| adi_min_used | 3 | national percentile rank (1 least deprived, 100 most) | lowest county deprivation rank among the counties used | the counties used | 2019-2023 tract population weights |   | 240 counties | 2019-2023 tract population | Area Deprivation Index |   |
| age_births_share | 23.6% | percent of live births | share of births in the counties shown | live births in the named counties | 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| age_cells | 6,525 | county-year-age cells | count of cells | named counties, five age groups, 2018 to 2022 | infant deaths and live births in 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| age_cells_withheld | 4,328 | withheld cells | count of cells with 1 to 9 infant deaths, which WONDER withholds | named counties, five age groups, 2018 to 2022 | infant deaths and live births in 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| age_counties | 14 | counties | count of counties | named counties that publish all five age groups in every year 2018 to 2022 | infant deaths and live births in 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| aian_cells | 102 | state-year cells | count of state-year cells | American Indian or Alaska Native mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in 50 states and DC | infant deaths and live births in 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| aian_published_share | 65.6% | percent of live births | share of births in state-years whose deaths WONDER publishes | live births to American Indian or Alaska Native mothers (single race, any ethnicity) | 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full counts of births) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| aian_withheld_cells | 66 | withheld state-year cells | count of state-year cells with 1 to 9 infant deaths, which WONDER withholds | American Indian or Alaska Native mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in 50 states and DC | infant deaths and live births in 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| alt_adi_least | 4.0 | Infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the least deprived tenth of counties ranked by Area Deprivation Index, among the counties with all four rankings | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 3.8 to 4.2 | 120 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_adi_most | 8.7 | Infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the most deprived tenth of counties ranked by Area Deprivation Index, among the counties with all four rankings | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 8.0 to 9.4 | 121 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_adi_rho | +0.95 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of counties ranked by Area Deprivation Index | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   |   | each bin counted once | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_degree_least | 4.3 | Infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the least deprived tenth of counties ranked by Bachelor's degree share, among the counties with all four rankings | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 4.1 to 4.6 | 120 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_degree_most | 7.8 | Infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the most deprived tenth of counties ranked by Bachelor's degree share, among the counties with all four rankings | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 7.2 to 8.5 | 121 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_degree_rho | +0.99 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of counties ranked by Bachelor's degree share | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   |   | each bin counted once | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_income_least | 3.9 | Infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the least deprived tenth of counties ranked by Median household income, among the counties with all four rankings | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 3.7 to 4.1 | 120 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_income_most | 9.0 | Infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the most deprived tenth of counties ranked by Median household income, among the counties with all four rankings | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 8.5 to 9.4 | 121 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_income_rho | +1.00 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of counties ranked by Median household income | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   |   | each bin counted once | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_n_places | 1,206 | counties | count of counties in the common sample of the ranking comparison | counties with the outcome and all four rankings | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   |   | none (full count) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_rho_cut | 0.9 | absolute rank correlation | threshold between a steady and an uneven gradient | the rule for changed gradients (docs/RANKING_SWITCH_RULE.md) | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   |   | none (a fixed rule) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_rho_margin | 0.1 | absolute rank correlation | smallest move in the rank correlation that counts as a change of shape | the rule for changed gradients (docs/RANKING_SWITCH_RULE.md) | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   |   | none (a fixed rule) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_std_least | 4.0 | Infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the least deprived tenth of counties ranked by Standardized index, among the counties with all four rankings | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 3.8 to 4.2 | 120 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_std_most | 7.0 | Infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates; 95% intervals from a bootstrap over counties | the most deprived tenth of counties ranked by Standardized index, among the counties with all four rankings | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 6.1 to 8.3 | 121 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_std_rho | +0.92 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of counties ranked by Standardized index | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   |   | each bin counted once | County Health Rankings |   |
| asian_left_out_share | 6.7% | percent of live births | share of births in state-years whose deaths WONDER withholds, which leave both deaths and births | live births to Asian or Pacific Islander mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in the United States | 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full counts of births) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| births_left_out_share | 2.6% | percent of live births | share of births in the counties left out because a year is withheld | live births in the named counties | 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| births_share_used | 62.3% | percent of live births in the United States | share of births in the counties used | live births in the 50 states and DC | 2018 to 2022 |   | 18,484,949 births | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| births_total | 18.5 million | live births | count of live births | live births in the 50 states and DC | 2018 to 2022 |   | 18,484,949 births | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| black_left_out_share | 1.0% | percent of live births | share of births in state-years whose deaths WONDER withholds, which leave both deaths and births | live births to Black mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in the United States | 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full counts of births) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| black_share_q1 | 11.1% | percent of live births | share of births to Black mothers (single race, any ethnicity) over all births, in the county-years where WONDER publishes the group's births; a county-year with no published count leaves both the numerator and the denominator | live births in the least deprived quarter of the counties used, by county deprivation rank | 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full counts of births) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| black_share_q4 | 31.1% | percent of live births | share of births to Black mothers (single race, any ethnicity) over all births, in the county-years where WONDER publishes the group's births; a county-year with no published count leaves both the numerator and the denominator | live births in the most deprived quarter of the counties used, by county deprivation rank | 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full counts of births) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death | Webb County, TX has no published count of births to Black mothers in 2 county-years, so those county-years are left out. Counting them as zero would give 30.7% for this quarter. |
| bw_black_births_share | 98.0% | percent of live births | share of those births in the states shown | live births to Black mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in the United States | 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full counts of births) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| bw_ratio_high | 3.2 | ratio of rates | ratio of crude rates in the state with the largest ratio, log-normal interval on the two death counts | live births in Delaware, Black mothers over white mothers (single race, any ethnicity) | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 2.3 to 4.7 | 123 infant deaths | none (crude rates from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| bw_ratio_low | 1.7 | ratio of rates | ratio of crude rates in the state with the smallest ratio, log-normal interval on the two death counts | live births in Mississippi, Black mothers over white mothers (single race, any ethnicity) | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 1.4 to 1.9 | 621 infant deaths | none (crude rates from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| bw_ratio_median | 2.1 | ratio of rates | median of the state ratios | live births in the states shown, Black mothers over white mothers (single race, any ethnicity) | 2018 and 2019 |   | 36 states | none (each state counts once) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| bw_states | 36 | states | count of states | states that publish infant deaths for both Black and white mothers in both 2018 and 2019 | infant deaths and live births in 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| chr_all_corr | 0.76 | correlation coefficient | births-weighted correlation of the county rate with county deprivation rank, county-cluster bootstrap interval | live births in counties with a County Health Rankings rate | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 0.71 to 0.80 | 1,206 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| chr_all_d1 | 4.0 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates, bootstrap interval over counties | live births in the least deprived tenth of counties with a County Health Rankings rate | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 3.8 to 4.2 | 120 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| chr_all_d10 | 8.8 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates, bootstrap interval over counties | live births in the most deprived tenth of counties with a County Health Rankings rate | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 8.1 to 9.5 | 121 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| chr_counties | 1,206 | counties | count of counties with at least 20 infant deaths in the period | counties and county equivalents with a County Health Rankings infant mortality rate and an ADI | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   |   | none (full count) | County Health Rankings |   |
| chr_lbd_corr | 0.980 | correlation coefficient | births-weighted correlation between the county rate in WONDER and in County Health Rankings, county-cluster bootstrap interval | live births in the counties of 250,000 residents or more that publish infant deaths in every year 2018 to 2022 | WONDER 2018 to 2022 and County Health Rankings 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 0.974 to 0.985 | 240 counties | WONDER births in each county | County Health Rankings |   |
| counties_above_adi_max | 712 | counties | count of counties whose rank is above the highest rank among the counties used | counties and county equivalents in the 50 states and DC with a deprivation rank | 2019-2023 tract population weights |   | 3,128 counties | none (full count) | Area Deprivation Index |   |
| counties_left_out | 21 | counties | count of counties left out of the county rates | named counties with a withheld death count in at least one year 2018 to 2022 | infant deaths and live births in 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| counties_named | 261 | counties | count of counties (two identifiers with no births are left out) | counties that WONDER linked birth and infant death names individually and that have births | infant deaths and live births in 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| counties_not_mapped | 1,937 | counties | count of counties with no County Health Rankings rate | counties and county equivalents on the map (50 states and DC) | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   |   | none (full count) | County Health Rankings |   |
| counties_used | 240 | counties | count of counties | named counties with a published death count in every year 2018 to 2022 | infant deaths and live births in 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| deaths_total | 102,503 | infant deaths | count of infant deaths (WONDER weights deaths, so the count can differ from the unweighted number of records by rounding) | infants born in the 50 states and DC | 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| first_day_share | 42.3% | percent of infant deaths | pooled share that are deaths in the first 24 hours, bootstrap interval over counties | infant deaths in the 14 counties that publish all five age groups | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 40.5% to 44.2% | 14 counties | infant deaths in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_2021 | 5.44 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births in the 50 states and DC | 2021 | 95% CI 5.36 to 5.51 | 19,927 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_adi_corr | 0.80 | correlation coefficient | births-weighted correlation of the county rate with county deprivation rank, county-cluster bootstrap interval | live births in the counties of 250,000 residents or more that publish infant deaths in every year 2018 to 2022 | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 0.73 to 0.86 | 240 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_all_1819 | 5.6 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births in the 50 states and DC | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 5.6 to 5.7 | 42,421 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_asian | 3.9 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from state counts, normal interval | live births to Asian or Pacific Islander mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in the United States, states with a published count | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 3.7 to 4.1 | 2,051 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_black | 10.3 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from state counts, normal interval | live births to Black mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in the United States, states with a published count | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 10.1 to 10.5 | 12,953 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_midwest | 6.1 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | pooled crude rate over the region's states (12 states), bootstrap interval over those states | live births in the Midwest Census region | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 5.5 to 6.5 | 12 states | births in each state | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_natl | 5.5 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births in the 50 states and DC | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 5.5 to 5.6 | 102,503 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_northeast | 4.5 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | pooled crude rate over the region's states (9 states), bootstrap interval over those states | live births in the Northeast Census region | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 3.9 to 5.2 | 9 states | births in each state | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_q1 | 3.9 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates (the pooled rate), bootstrap interval over counties | live births in the least deprived quarter of the counties used, by county deprivation rank | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 3.7 to 4.1 | 60 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_q4 | 7.2 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates (the pooled rate), bootstrap interval over counties | live births in the most deprived quarter of the counties used, by county deprivation rank | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 6.7 to 7.6 | 60 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_q_diff | 3.3 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | difference of two pooled rates, bootstrap interval over counties with shared draws | live births in the counties used, most deprived quarter minus least deprived quarter | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 2.8 to 3.8 | 240 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_q_ratio | 1.9 | ratio of rates | ratio of two pooled rates, bootstrap interval over counties with shared draws | live births in the counties used, most deprived quarter over least deprived quarter | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 1.7 to 2.0 | 240 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_race_gap | 5.6 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | difference of crude rates, normal interval on the two death counts | live births in the United States, Black mothers minus white mothers (single race, any ethnicity) | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 5.4 to 5.8 | 39,469 infant deaths | none (crude rates from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_race_ratio | 2.2 | ratio of rates | ratio of crude rates, log-normal interval on the two death counts | live births in the United States, Black mothers over white mothers (single race, any ethnicity) | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 2.1 to 2.2 | 39,469 infant deaths | none (crude rates from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_rest | 5.1 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | pooled crude rate over the states of the group (34 states), bootstrap interval over those states | live births outside the Census South region | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 4.6 to 5.7 | 34 states | births in each state | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_slope_1819_per_10 | 0.62 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births for each ten points of county deprivation rank | births-weighted slope of the county rate on county deprivation rank, county-cluster bootstrap interval | live births in the counties of 250,000 residents or more that publish infant deaths in every year 2018 to 2022, deaths and births in 2018 and 2019 only | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 0.52 to 0.71 | 240 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_slope_black_per_10 | 0.82 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births for each ten points of county deprivation rank | births-weighted slope of the county rate on county deprivation rank, county-cluster bootstrap interval | live births to Black mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in the counties used that publish the group in both years | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 0.62 to 1.01 | 115 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_slope_fe_per_10 | 0.62 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births for each ten points of county deprivation rank | births-weighted slope of the county rate on county deprivation rank with state fixed effects, bootstrap interval over states | live births in the counties of 250,000 residents or more that publish infant deaths in every year 2018 to 2022 | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 0.47 to 0.84 | 44 states | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_slope_per_10 | 0.63 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births for each ten points of county deprivation rank | births-weighted slope of the county rate on county deprivation rank, county-cluster bootstrap interval | live births in the counties of 250,000 residents or more that publish infant deaths in every year 2018 to 2022 | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 0.54 to 0.71 | 240 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_slope_white_per_10 | 0.36 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births for each ten points of county deprivation rank | births-weighted slope of the county rate on county deprivation rank, county-cluster bootstrap interval | live births to white mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in the counties used that publish the group in both years | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 0.29 to 0.44 | 203 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_south | 6.3 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | pooled crude rate over the states of the group (17 states), bootstrap interval over those states | live births in the Census South region (16 states and DC) | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 5.9 to 6.9 | 17 states | births in each state | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_state_high | 8.7 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births in Mississippi | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 8.3 to 9.2 | 1,564 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_state_low | 3.7 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births in Massachusetts | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 3.5 to 3.9 | 1,260 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_state_low_nh | 3.7 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births in New Hampshire | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 3.2 to 4.2 | 224 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_state_ratio | 2.4 | ratio of rates | ratio of Mississippi's crude rate to Massachusetts's, log-normal interval on the two death counts | live births in Mississippi and in Massachusetts | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 2.2 to 2.6 | 2,824 infant deaths | none (crude rates from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_west | 4.6 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | pooled crude rate over the region's states (13 states), bootstrap interval over those states | live births in the West Census region | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 4.3 to 5.3 | 13 states | births in each state | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_white | 4.7 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from state counts, normal interval | live births to white mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in the United States, states with a published count | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 4.7 to 4.8 | 26,516 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_year_high | 5.7 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births in the 50 states and DC | 2018 | 95% CI 5.6 to 5.7 | 21,496 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| imr_year_low | 5.4 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births in the 50 states and DC | 2020 | 95% CI 5.3 to 5.5 | 19,576 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| jurisdictions | 51 | jurisdictions | count of states and DC in the state files | the 50 states and the District of Columbia | infant deaths and live births in 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| lbd_county_threshold | 250,000 | residents | population size at which WONDER names a county in the linked file (a definition) | counties that CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death names individually | infant deaths and live births in 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (definition) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| lbd_withheld_cells | 44 | withheld county-years | count of county-years with 1 to 9 infant deaths, which WONDER withholds | county-year rows of the named counties | infant deaths and live births in 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| lbd_withheld_max_share | 0.6% | percent of infant deaths | largest share of deaths the withheld county-years could hold: 9 deaths in each withheld county-year, over published deaths plus that limit | infant deaths in the named counties | 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (an upper limit from the cell count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| map_floor_deaths | 20 | infant deaths | fewest infant deaths in the period for which County Health Rankings publishes a county rate, which is also the book's map floor (a definition) | counties on the map | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   |   | none (definition) | County Health Rankings |   |
| map_key_high | 10.6 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | ninety-fifth percentile of the mapped county rates, the high end of the map key (counties beyond it take the end color) | mapped counties | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   | 1,206 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| map_key_low | 3.7 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | fifth percentile of the mapped county rates, the low end of the map key (counties beyond it take the end color) | mapped counties | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   | 1,206 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| map_ms_top | 25 | counties | count of those counties in Mississippi | mapped counties in the highest tenth of infant mortality rates | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   | 121 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| map_south_all_share | 49.3% | percent of counties | share of mapped counties in the Census South region (16 states and DC) | all mapped counties | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   | 1,206 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| map_south_top_share | 85.1% | percent of counties | share of those counties in the Census South region (16 states and DC) | mapped counties in the highest tenth of infant mortality rates | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 |   | 121 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| neo_rate | 3.6 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | pooled neonatal (under 28 days) death rate, bootstrap interval over counties | live births in the 14 counties that publish all five age groups | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 3.1 to 4.1 | 14 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| neo_ratio_halves | 1.5 | ratio of rates | ratio of pooled neonatal death rates, bootstrap interval over counties with shared draws | live births in the 14 counties that publish all five age groups, the counties above the median deprivation rank over those below it | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 1.2 to 1.8 | 14 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| neo_share | 68.7% | percent of infant deaths | pooled share that are neonatal deaths (under 28 days), bootstrap interval over counties | infant deaths in the 14 counties that publish all five age groups | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 67.4% to 70.2% | 14 counties | infant deaths in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| neonatal_cutoff_days | 28 | days of age | age below which an infant death is neonatal; from this age to the first birthday it is postneonatal (a definition) | infants | all years (a definition) |   |   | none (definition) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| per_1000 | 1,000 | live births | the denominator of an infant mortality rate (a definition) | all live births | all years (a definition) |   |   | none (definition) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| post_rate | 1.6 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | pooled postneonatal (28 to 364 days) death rate, bootstrap interval over counties | live births in the 14 counties that publish all five age groups | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 1.4 to 1.9 | 14 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| post_ratio_halves | 1.6 | ratio of rates | ratio of pooled postneonatal death rates, bootstrap interval over counties with shared draws | live births in the 14 counties that publish all five age groups, the counties above the median deprivation rank over those below it | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 1.3 to 2.1 | 14 counties | births in each county | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| race_births_share_black | 82.5% | percent of live births | share of those births in counties that publish the group in both years | live births to Black mothers in the counties used | 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| race_births_share_white | 93.9% | percent of live births | share of those births in counties that publish the group in both years | live births to white mothers in the counties used | 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| race_counties_black | 115 | counties | count of counties | counties used that publish Black infant deaths in both 2018 and 2019 | infant deaths and live births in 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| race_counties_white | 203 | counties | count of counties | counties used that publish white infant deaths in both 2018 and 2019 | infant deaths and live births in 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| rank_step | 10 | points of county deprivation rank | the step in the county deprivation rank for which a slope is reported (a definition) | counties | all years (a definition) |   |   | none (definition) | Area Deprivation Index |   |
| south_in_top | 7 | states | highest-rate states in the Census South region (16 states and DC) | the ten states with the highest infant mortality rates | 2018 to 2022 |   | 10 states | none (each state counts once) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| south_n | 17 | jurisdictions | jurisdictions in the Census South region (16 states and DC) | the 50 states and DC | 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| south_rest_ratio | 1.2 | ratio of rates | ratio of pooled crude rates (17 South states over 34 other states), stratified bootstrap interval that resamples the states of each group separately | live births in the 50 states and DC, Census South region over the rest | 2018 to 2022 | 95% CI 1.1 to 1.4 | 51 states in the two groups | births in each state | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| states_above | 21 | states | states whose 95% interval lies above the national rate | the 50 states and DC | 2018 to 2022 |   | 51 jurisdictions | none (crude rates from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| states_below | 16 | states | states whose 95% interval lies below the national rate | the 50 states and DC | 2018 to 2022 |   | 51 jurisdictions | none (crude rates from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| states_top_n | 10 | states | the number of highest-rate states examined (a definition) | the 50 states and DC | 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (definition) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| us_imr | 5.7 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | births-weighted mean of county rates over all the deciles, bootstrap interval over counties | live births in all counties with a County Health Rankings rate, ranked by the ADI | infant deaths and live births in 2015 to 2021 | 95% CI 5.5 to 5.9 | 1,206 counties | births in each county (County Health Rankings denominator) | County Health Rankings |   |
| white_left_out_share | 0.1% | percent of live births | share of births in state-years whose deaths WONDER withholds, which leave both deaths and births | live births to white mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in the United States | 2018 and 2019 |   |   | none (full counts of births) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| white_state_high | 6.7 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births to white mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in Mississippi | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 5.8 to 7.5 | 263 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| white_state_low | 3.2 | infant deaths per 1,000 live births | crude rate from the death count, normal interval | live births to white mothers (single race, any ethnicity) in New Jersey | 2018 and 2019 | 95% CI 2.9 to 3.5 | 457 infant deaths | none (crude rate from counts) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |
| wonder_suppression_floor | 10 | infant deaths | a cell with fewer deaths than this is withheld (a definition) | cells of the WONDER linked birth and infant death files | infant deaths and live births in 2018 to 2022 |   |   | none (definition) | CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death |   |

## Definitions

- Infant mortality rate: The number of babies who die before their first birthday for every thousand live births.
- Crude rate: Deaths or births divided by the population, with no adjustment for age. A place with older residents has a higher crude death rate even if health at each age is the same.
- Suppression: The withholding of a number because the count behind it is too small to publish without risking the identification of a person. A suppressed value is missing, not zero.
- Area Deprivation Index (ADI): A score that ranks neighborhoods by income, education, employment and housing conditions drawn from the American Community Survey. In this book a higher national percentile means a more deprived neighborhood.
- Ecological inference: Drawing conclusions about individuals from data about places or groups. A pattern across counties need not hold for the people inside them.

## Methods

This chapter compares infant deaths per 1,000 live births across states, counties, groups of mothers by race and ages at death, using CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death records for 2018 to 2022. The rates are crude, with no adjustment for the mother's age or other characteristics. County rates cover only counties that WONDER names (250,000 residents or more) and that publish a death count in every year, so the 21 named counties with a withheld year are left out. Mother's race is reported only for 2018 and 2019, and the county map and the all-county check use County Health Rankings rates for 2015 to 2021, a different source and period.

### What is counted and for which years

Infant mortality is the number of infant deaths (before the first birthday) per 1,000. Rates are crude: nothing is adjusted for the mother's age or other characteristics.

Counts come from CDC WONDER linked birth and infant death records, which link death certificates to birth certificates; a death is assigned to the year of death and divided by live births in the same year. WONDER weights infant deaths, so counts can differ from the number of records, and age groups from a total, by rounding.

State rates pool 2018 to 2022 over the 51 jurisdictions, whose totals have no withheld cell. The 2021 state file reproduces the national rate and the highest and lowest state in the NCHS report for that year (5.44 per 1,000 nationally).

Explains Table 1.

### Which counties are included

County rates cover the counties that WONDER names (250,000 residents or more; WONDER pools every other county in a state into one Unidentified Counties row) and use only counties with a published death count in every year 2018 to 2022: a county-year with 1 to 9 deaths is withheld, a county's published years are its high years, and pooling over them would bias the rate upward. A withheld cell is missing; nothing is derived from totals minus published cells. The 21 named counties with a withheld year are left out whole.

Explains Table 3.

### Why mother's race and age at death cover fewer places

Mother's race comes from the linked file for 2018 and 2019, the only years it is reported, as single race of any ethnicity; a state-year cell of 1 to 9 deaths is withheld and leaves both deaths and births, a group's national rate pools the published state-years, and Black and white rates by state use states that publish both groups in both years. American Indian or Alaska Native mothers are not shown because too few of their state-years are published.

Age at death uses the county file, in which the five age groups (under 1 hour, 1 to 23 hours, 1 to 6 days, 7 to 27 days, 28 to 364 days) are each withheld below 10 deaths; neonatal is the first four groups and postneonatal the last, and only counties that publish all five groups in every year are used.

Explains Table 5, Table 6 and Table 7.

### The county map and the all-county check use County Health Rankings

The county map and the all-county gradient use County Health Rankings 2024, whose infant mortality rate covers 2015 to 2021 and is published only from 20 deaths (window and rule as in the County Health Rankings 2024 technical documentation and the dataset note; as a consistency check, its denominators run about one percent above the 2016 to 2022 births behind its low birthweight measure, as 2015 to 2021 births would).

Explains Table 2 and Table 4.

### How counties are ranked and grouped

A county's deprivation rank is the population-weighted mean of the Area Deprivation Index national ranks of its census tracts, weighted by 2019-2023 tract population; Connecticut tracts are assigned to the eight legacy counties. Quartiles and deciles hold equal numbers of counties. Quartile and decile means are births-weighted means of county rates (pooled rates).

Explains Table 3.

### How uncertainty is measured

State rates carry gamma (fewer than 100 deaths) or normal (100 or more) intervals on the death count, the NCHS convention. Ratios of two crude rates carry log-normal intervals on the two death counts and differences carry normal intervals.

Means, differences, ratios, correlations and slopes across counties carry 95% percentile intervals from a bootstrap that resamples whole counties (2,000 replicates, seed 12345); the state fixed-effects slope resamples whole states, and so does each region's pooled rate, within the states of that region; a group needs at least five states, and the Northeast, with nine, has the roughest interval; the ratio of the South to the other states resamples the states of each group separately (seeds 12345 and 12346).

### Four rankings of the same places

The comparison follows the book's ranking switch rule, fixed on October 28, 2026 before any of these gradients was computed. The main gradient of the chapter is recomputed under four rankings of the same places, with the outcome, period, weights, bins and intervals unchanged: the published ADI; a standardized index that applies the ADI's coefficients to its measures after standardizing each one across tracts; median household income; and the share of adults 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more. The three alternatives come from ACS tract estimates for 2019 to 2023, the period of the ADI.

All four rankings use the same places, the 1,206 counties that have the outcome and all four rankings, so the ADI panel can differ slightly from the chapter's main figure. Tracts enter only if they have every input of the standardized index, which leaves out tracts without a median rent, home value or mortgage cost. A county takes the population-weighted mean of the ranks of its common-sample tracts, weighted by 2019-2023 tract population, with Connecticut tracts assigned to the eight legacy counties that County Health Rankings uses.

A pattern counts as changed when the worse end switches sides, when the two ends differ under one ranking and not the other, or when the rank correlation of bin order and bin mean falls on the other side of 0.9 and moves by at least 0.1.

Explains Table 8.

## What these data cannot show

The county gradient describes the 240 largest counties, which hold 62.3% of births. WONDER pools the rest by state. The County Health Rankings check reaches smaller counties but leaves out those that do not reach 20 deaths in the period, and the counties just above that floor have the least precise rates on the map. The county rates describe counties that publish a figure, which are not a sample of all counties, and the age-at-death figure covers only 14 of them.

Sources and periods differ, and each is named where it appears. WONDER covers 2018 to 2022 for states and counties and 2018 and 2019 for mother's race, and County Health Rankings covers 2015 to 2021. WONDER's race groups are single races that include Hispanic mothers, so its white group is not the non-Hispanic white group of other sources, and Hispanic origin is not in the files used here. American Indian or Alaska Native mothers are not shown.

The Area Deprivation Index understates deprivation in high-cost cities (Chapter 1.1, What the deprivation index measures (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/anatomy-of-deprivation)) and draws on the American Community Survey for 2019 to 2023, while the deaths are from 2018 to 2022. A county's rank averages over tracts that differ within the county, and it describes no family's circumstances. Patterns across counties and states are patterns of places, not of individual infants, a limit known as ecological inference.

Finally, the files carry no cause of death, no gestational age or birthweight, and no information on mothers beyond race, so nothing here identifies a mechanism. The rates are crude period rates, and 2020 to 2022 include the pandemic. Intervals for state and race rates treat deaths as independent and leave out differences between places within each rate, while the county figures resample whole counties.

## References

1. Chen, Alice; Oster, Emily; Williams, Heidi (2016). Why Is Infant Mortality Higher in the United States than in Europe?. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 8(2): 89-124. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20140224
2. Ely, Danielle M.; Driscoll, Anne K. (2023). Infant Mortality in the United States, 2021: Data From the Period Linked Birth/Infant Death File. National Vital Statistics Reports 72(11). https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc:131356
3. Kind, Amy J. H.; Buckingham, William R. (2018). Making Neighborhood-Disadvantage Metrics Accessible: The Neighborhood Atlas. New England Journal of Medicine 378(26): 2456-2458. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1802313

## Provenance

- Pipeline version: 0.1.0
- Build script: book2/chapters/infant-mortality/build.py (sha256 a02fbe8b137224283f0e9dd52c1a4846216f2697c9f9329890e71495d137658c)
- Built on: 2026-10-07
- Site commit: c2b1ff3309cb4a10833f884da91ac0057a66ad0a

Inputs:

| File | Size (bytes) | SHA-256, first 1 MB | SHA-256, last 1 MB |
| --- | ---: | --- | --- |
| data/analytic/tract_atlas.parquet | 39,659,925 | 29d5e4d943552d54aeb6ba92aadc939d9bd15bdea553c78357dbd516757be627 | 1e10d1ecf722340f23ee2212d4999a90250f85b65fa89b39e32db06d9472e22e |
| data/geo/dim_geo.parquet | 1,180,921 | 29d5e4d943552d54aeb6ba92aadc939d9bd15bdea553c78357dbd516757be627 | e58c8c488df54ab3187f5461f179322afdc49c9bd2315404003fe1272eea32c3 |
| data/raw/acs/deprivation_components_2019_2023/tract.parquet | 13,197,793 | 5545cde2cbe96a8b56e468d65388248a241aa6bd300d3c9e325d08d3f86b11da | 5c8ec454d066988b0f1a01aaa6ed34ebfc05d162e01cf9c6bb01f9198cbaff12 |
| data/staged/adi/adi_atlas_tract2020_2023.parquet | 798,078 | 5e409bc212ff871def780fa27b4cf8b616d9da420b2b9f6455517eddcd8c1a95 | 5e409bc212ff871def780fa27b4cf8b616d9da420b2b9f6455517eddcd8c1a95 |
| data/staged/crosswalks/ct_tract2020_to_old_county.parquet | 15,842 | 961ef39f31596ef65fca2c67d5f2f63e533c5dc9b49745d3bb6437844e4b831d | 961ef39f31596ef65fca2c67d5f2f63e533c5dc9b49745d3bb6437844e4b831d |
| data/staged/health/chr_county_2024.parquet | 8,776,933 | 619795f7ecfec8aff10694b649eaee5e421dbeffbe4be47af4161b51ceefa5cd | c69357f1bcf630407bb9716cb445618838999558c019aaaf77d4681b6bf45c56 |
| data/staged/mortality/wonder_lbd_county_age_2018_2022.parquet | 44,111 | 3c93255ccfddd6ef6a06b7c2aec1f5a66ad62f3a4a1f342a6f19f67a47bcdfe5 | 3c93255ccfddd6ef6a06b7c2aec1f5a66ad62f3a4a1f342a6f19f67a47bcdfe5 |
| data/staged/mortality/wonder_lbd_county_race_2018_2022.parquet | 50,622 | cbe4c336184a835d2d61a2b626c3f4c48455a254ea8ff2a7a6d6eb6fbca700ed | cbe4c336184a835d2d61a2b626c3f4c48455a254ea8ff2a7a6d6eb6fbca700ed |
| data/staged/mortality/wonder_lbd_county_total_2018_2022.parquet | 29,903 | 8e0f2604f2be86d6d86c2d206fa4486b2479411c88a6bb9b1595f3d945a4e5b8 | 8e0f2604f2be86d6d86c2d206fa4486b2479411c88a6bb9b1595f3d945a4e5b8 |
| data/staged/mortality/wonder_lbd_state_race_2018_2022.parquet | 16,461 | 9d17fb750f0d7d3e99d48945e1131654951deddcabfa1d520f0cbf3d717ab710 | 9d17fb750f0d7d3e99d48945e1131654951deddcabfa1d520f0cbf3d717ab710 |
| data/staged/mortality/wonder_lbd_state_total_2018_2022.parquet | 10,241 | 60c10382f900be2cd9d44fbcef5dcc9c559e857ab644097d2f546253484ac42d | 60c10382f900be2cd9d44fbcef5dcc9c559e857ab644097d2f546253484ac42d |
| data/staged/ses/acs5_tract2020_2019_2023.parquet | 7,232,424 | 5fe6f730a35225f14d5d8abfc6b9bce58b52e545f309a7eac74f1dae74d7a31c | 7b4a2475b3852d3f91804716a04566ef8ceadacec2be9fb85f5eb642078efac6 |
| data/staged/svi/svi_tract2020_2022.parquet | 17,740,415 | cb3860d8edc2aaf1f2a02211a58f7a0b80457eb6ad9a37b5ec8abb2d5da9da10 | e371a4a696d5bed05d54ad7c5b6ca2504508805b847ec415c2322be7f66ec2b2 |

Outputs:

| File | SHA-256 |
| --- | --- |
| facts.json | 692b8c0a99be5f6003eee48dd12459e7f65edc244298bf9b5c1f6044d810cfc6 |
| figures/alt_rankings.json | f65e1e27fd5688264db1374dadbdc45f9ec310c1c979dcb715318361b537b178 |
| figures/imr_age_at_death.json | 0b930545b9cbe520881610e4cf9da71c5f80788fcdea214a8a3f4b7404213339 |
| figures/imr_black_white_states.json | 21dbd5660b053825d8e216d901282e3837d8eb99f38a9d78026334a33022a045 |
| figures/imr_by_deprivation.json | ebe5d39824c8881f3b66cf5662e8da7229643c1894815e73029362570c2ff062 |
| figures/imr_by_race.json | 5f4a314c27901d8332ce34ad143de499ff41c7ecac5ee5670973aff1b23568f7 |
| figures/imr_by_state.json | cc13e7b94a90fe6a337d8a5dcb1e521a6828ad908f5e31c95263a70d1f3bcbe0 |
| figures/imr_county_map.json | e2ab821b4602e116709c5d01d6cdf5989caff366a4758d79fbddeaf4573ac622 |
| figures/imr_gradient_checks.json | 069e6db198ea6885e56ada2d237bcdce8f80558b632aedc4677e82e882d665fd |
| meta.json | d8ebd63357145818c218da552fc524ccb8054aeedbcc5b89e9acda517ac8c13c |
| public/data/infant-mortality/imr_county_map.json | 71c917b82e4dbc153c8690b5c6870faa21f8c7a998e3f36fb38057f6cbd963fa |
| refs.json | 9a6c7e9cd1e6cc5e38bee847979896206ef20d8b68fd0af97b3022c93232bdde |

## Machine formats

- Report (HTML): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/infant-mortality/report
- Report (Markdown): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/infant-mortality/report.md
- Every estimate (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/facts.json
- Table 1, figure "imr_by_state" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_by_state.json
- Table 2, figure "imr_county_map" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_county_map.json
- Table 3, figure "imr_by_deprivation" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_by_deprivation.json
- Table 4, figure "imr_gradient_checks" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_gradient_checks.json
- Table 5, figure "imr_by_race" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_by_race.json
- Table 6, figure "imr_black_white_states" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_black_white_states.json
- Table 7, figure "imr_age_at_death" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/imr_age_at_death.json
- Table 8, figure "alt_rankings" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/infant-mortality/figures/alt_rankings.json
- Payload of "imr_county_map" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/infant-mortality/imr_county_map.json
- Index of every report: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/llms.txt; all reports in one file: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/llms-full.txt