# Health behaviors and the supply of care: report

Chapter 7.1 of ZIP Code Destiny, by Vishal Singh (NYU Stern). Generated from the chapter's data files; the reading version is at https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care. Table n of this report is figure n of the chapter.

## Identification

- Title: Health behaviors and the supply of care
- Label: The body keeps the address
- Chapter: 7.1 (Part VII, Health and care; An American life)
- Question: How steeply do health behaviors and chronic conditions rise with neighborhood deprivation, and does the supply of doctors and dentists follow need?
- Dek: In the most deprived tenth of census tracts, the modeled 2022 share of adults with a past-year dental visit was 24.4 points below the least deprived tenth, and the routine-checkup share 3.6 points above.
- Grain: neighborhoods
- Status: published
- Published: 2026-10-09
- Updated: not revised
- Data sources:
  - CDC PLACES. CDC PLACES 2024 release, census tracts: modeled prevalence among adults for 40 measures (BRFSS 2022; 2021 for four measures), crude prevalence; years: 2024 release (tracts); 2025 release (ZCTAs, 2023 data year); weights: adult population of each tract (PLACES)
  - Area Deprivation Index. Neighborhood Atlas Area Deprivation Index 2023, national percentile, tract and county (county mean of tract ranks); years: 2023 release (version 4.0.1; built on ACS 2019-2023); weights: adult population of each tract; ACS 2019-2023 population for county means
  - County Health Rankings. County Health Rankings 2024: provider counts (physicians 2021, dentists 2022, mental health providers 2023), preventable hospital stays 2021, food environment index 2019 and 2021, percent rural; years: 2024 release; weights: pooled ratios of counts; county population for county means and correlations
  - American Community Survey. ACS 2019-2023 tracts: median household income and the shares of residents who are ages 65 and over, Black alone and Hispanic; years: 2019-2023 (5-year); weights: none (controls and the income axis)
- Canonical URL: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care
- Report: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/report
- Markdown: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/report.md
- BibTeX key: singh2026healthbehaviorsandthesupplyofcare

```bibtex
@misc{singh2026healthbehaviorsandthesupplyofcare,
  author = {Singh, Vishal},
  title = {Health behaviors and the supply of care},
  year = {2026},
  url = {https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care},
  note = {In ZIP Code Destiny. Published 9 October 2026.}
}
```

## Principal estimates

The facts the dek and the opening prose cite, in order of appearance.

| Estimand | Population | Period | Value | Interval | n | Weights | Source | Fact id |
| --- | --- | --- | ---: | --- | ---: | --- | --- | --- |
| difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: dental visit in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 24.4 | 95% CI 22.5 to 26.5 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | flat_dental_delta |
| difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 3.6 | 95% CI 2.4 to 4.6 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | flat_checkup_delta |
| weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: dental visit in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 45.8% | 95% CI 45.0% to 46.6% | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | flat_dental_d10 |
| weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the least deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: dental visit in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 70.3% | 95% CI 68.5% to 72.1% | 8,274 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | flat_dental_d1 |
| weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 77.8% | 95% CI 77.3% to 78.2% | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | checkup_hi |
| weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the least deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 74.2% | 95% CI 73.2% to 75.3% | 8,274 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | checkup_lo |

## Findings

The share of adults who visited a dentist in the past year was 45.8% in the most deprived tenth of census tracts and 70.3% in the least deprived tenth. The share who had a routine checkup in the past year went the other way, 77.8% in the most deprived tenth against 74.2% in the least deprived. Both are modeled estimates from the 2024 release of CDC PLACES, which uses survey responses from 2022, and the tenths rank tracts on the Area Deprivation Index (ADI).[1][2] The chapter places those two measures among the other measures of health that rise with deprivation, the behaviors that sort by income, and the supply of physicians, dentists and mental health providers in deprived counties.

### Health and access measures rise with deprivation, and the checkup rises least

The share of adults who smoke was 9.1% (95% CI 8.5% to 9.6%) in the least deprived tenth of tracts and 22.8% (95% CI 22.5% to 23.1%) in the most deprived, 2.5 (95% CI 2.4 to 2.7) times as high. The share with diagnosed diabetes rose from 9.5% to 17.5%.

PLACES estimates 83,522 tracts, and 82,781 of them have an ADI rank, so the 741 without one are left out. Tenths hold from 8,118 to 8,511 tracts, because tracts with tied ranks fall in the same tenth.

Table 1 follows 12 measures of health, behavior and access across the whole index. They are this book's selection from the 40 that PLACES publishes for tracts: conditions and behaviors that the first edition followed, insurance, food insecurity and the checkup. For 11 of the 12 measures, the largest step between neighboring twentieths of tracts is the last one, at the deprived end of the index.

For the 11 measures other than the annual checkup, the ratio of prevalence in the most deprived tenth to the least deprived runs from 1.25 (95% CI 1.21 to 1.30) (depression) to 3.6 (95% CI 3.1 to 4.1) (all teeth lost among adults ages 65 and over).

Table 1. 11 measures are at least 4.8 points more common in the most deprived tenth of tracts than in the least deprived, and the annual checkup is 3.6 points more common

Among the twelve, the annual checkup rises least in ratio terms. Its rate was 74.2% (95% CI 73.2% to 75.3%) in the least deprived tenth and 77.8% (95% CI 77.3% to 78.2%) in the most deprived, a ratio of 1.05 (95% CI 1.03 to 1.06). The next smallest ratio of the twelve is 1.25 for depression. Of all 40 PLACES measures, 34 are higher in the most deprived tenth, and the checkup has the smallest ratio of them, with 1.08 for blood pressure medicine next.

In points the ranking differs. The checkup rises 3.6 (95% CI 2.4 to 4.6) points, and 4 measures outside the twelve (asthma, stroke, high cholesterol and social isolation) rise by less. Depression rises by 4.8 (95% CI 4.1 to 5.6) points, close to the checkup in points but from a lower base. The second view of the figure, in multiples of the least deprived tenth, separates the two.

Part of every PLACES gradient in this chapter is built in. PLACES does not count anyone. It fits a model to responses from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) and applies the model to each tract's population. The model uses county poverty, the age, sex, race and ethnicity of the tract's residents and their education, with state and county random effects. The inputs come from the census and the American Community Survey.[1] The Area Deprivation Index is built from American Community Survey data as well,[2] so part of the association between the model's estimates and the index is mechanical. The shared inputs do not guarantee a contrast between two measures, such as the checkup and the dental visit. The model can still produce one through the demographic mix of tracts, because the survey responses it is fitted to differ by age, race and education. Within a county, the model gives tracts different values only through the demographic composition of their residents. Slopes within counties, and in part slopes within states and the coefficient zoo, therefore show how the model maps composition and county inputs into prevalence, and not what the residents of those tracts do. The sections below ask how much of each pattern survives when the state, the county and part of the mix are held fixed.

 (Note: The PLACES 2024 release uses BRFSS responses from 2022, and from 2021 for blood pressure, blood pressure medicine, high cholesterol and cholesterol screening. Values are crude prevalence among adults, so the age structure of a tract moves them. The tract file carries no intervals, and the bands in this chapter come from resampling counties.)

### Behaviors and conditions fall with income in every state except binge drinking, which rises

One reading of the gradient is that deprived places are sicker because their residents behave worse. The analysis uses 6 PLACES measures that bear on that reading, and they do not sort the same way. For each state, the prevalence of each across the state's tracts is regressed on the log of tract median household income, with the shares of residents who are older, Black and Hispanic held fixed, and each coefficient is scaled to a doubling of income. A set of such coefficients, 306 here, one per state and measure, is a coefficient zoo (Table 2), and Chapter 10.1, Gradients, slopes and variance (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/gradients-slopes-and-variance) takes up the method.

Smoking, obesity, diabetes, frequent mental distress and physical inactivity all have a negative slope in all 51 states. A doubling of tract income goes with a median of −4.7 points of smoking, −4.3 points of obesity and −6.7 points of physical inactivity.

For each of these five measures the interval lies below zero in at least 47 of the 51 states. Binge drinking has the opposite sign. Its slope is positive in 50 states, with a median of +1.2 points per doubling and an interval above zero in 41. Maryland is the one state with a negative estimate, and its interval includes zero.

Table 2. Binge drinking is higher in higher-income tracts in 50 of 51 states, while the other measures are lower in higher-income tracts in all 51 states

These are differences between tracts, and they do not say who drinks. Tracts with higher incomes have a higher modeled share of adults who binge drink, and tract values cannot show whether the drinkers are the high-income residents of those tracts. Survey estimates for individuals, with design-based intervals, are the subject of Chapter 7.2, Health behaviors, person by person (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/health-behaviors-person-by-person). The PLACES model and the census income measure share inputs, so the coefficients show what those inputs and the survey responses give together. Whatever the model contributes, the six measures do not share one direction with income, and an index of deprivation does not rank places on all of them alike.

### The annual checkup does not follow the gradient that the dental visit does

The checkup measures contact with a physician, and the dental visit measures routine dental care, which is mostly preventive. Table 3 plots both against the index. The dental visit rate falls from 70.3% (95% CI 68.5% to 72.1%) in the least deprived tenth of tracts to 45.8% (95% CI 45.0% to 46.6%) in the most deprived, 24.4 (95% CI 22.5 to 26.5) points lower. The checkup rate rises from 74.2% to 77.8%, 3.6 (95% CI 2.4 to 4.6) points higher. Across the most deprived tenth of the index the dental line falls fastest and the checkup line rises fastest.

Table 3. From the least to the most deprived tenth of tracts, the dental visit rate falls from 70.3% to 45.8% while the annual checkup rate rises from 74.2% to 77.8%

The same split appears across a wider ledger of care (Table 4). Among women ages 50 to 74, mammography is 7.0 (95% CI 6.3 to 7.8) points lower in the most deprived tenth. Cholesterol screening is 6.9 (95% CI 6.2 to 7.5) points lower, and colorectal cancer screening among adults ages 45 to 75 is 6.2 (95% CI 4.4 to 8.2) points lower.

Among adults ages 18 to 64, the share without health insurance is 17.4% (95% CI 16.1% to 18.9%) in the most deprived tenth against 6.3% (95% CI 5.7% to 6.8%) in the least deprived, 11.1 (95% CI 9.7 to 12.7) points higher.

The share of adults without reliable transportation is 9.7 (95% CI 9.0 to 10.5) points higher. Among adults with high blood pressure, the share taking medicine for it is 5.9 (95% CI 4.8 to 6.7) points higher, and the checkup, as above, is 3.6 points higher. Tract means weight each tract by all its adults, including for the measures that cover only some ages, because the file carries no population for them. The figure groups the measures as checkup and treatment, dental visit and screening, and barriers. The grouping is this book's, since PLACES files the checkup, blood pressure medicine, the dental visit and insurance together under prevention. Within it, the dental visit and the screening tests fall with deprivation, and the checkup and blood pressure medicine rise.

Table 4. In the most deprived tenth of tracts, the dental visit and screening tests are less common by 6.2 to 24.4 points and barriers to care are more common by 9.7 and 11.1 points

### Within states and counties the checkup slope stays near zero

The national checkup difference could reflect where deprived tracts are, because the checkup rate differs across states. Table 5 compares four ways of drawing the slope across 82,779 tracts that have an ADI rank, both measures and the three census shares. Across all tracts, the checkup rate rises +0.41 (95% CI 0.29 to 0.54) points for each ten-point step in the ADI percentile. Within states, with a separate baseline for each state (state fixed effects), the slope is −0.01 (95% CI −0.08 to 0.05), and within counties it is −0.27 (95% CI −0.35 to −0.19), a decline. Holding the tract's shares of older, Black and Hispanic residents fixed within states gives −0.05 (95% CI −0.10 to 0.01).

The dental slope is −2.37 (95% CI −2.66 to −2.08) across all tracts, −2.97 (95% CI −3.14 to −2.80) within states, −3.86 (95% CI −3.99 to −3.73) within counties and −2.38 (95% CI −2.51 to −2.24) within states with the controls. Within a state or a county the checkup slope is at most 0.27 in size, and the smallest dental slope is 8.8 times as large.

Table 5. The checkup slope is within 0.5 points of zero in all four specifications, and the dental slope is between −2.37 and −3.86 points

Fitting the slope separately in each state gives the same contrast (Table 6). The dental slope is negative in 51 of 51 states and has an interval below zero in 50, with a median of −3.2 points per ten-point step. It is within 0.5 points of zero in 0 states.

The checkup slope is within 0.5 points of zero in 42 states, with a median of +0.03. It is not zero everywhere. The interval lies below zero in 18 states, above zero in 10 and across zero in 23.

The largest checkup estimate is +1.7 (95% CI 1.3 to 2.1) in the District of Columbia, which is a single county, so its interval is not clustered. Every state has at least 158 tracts, above the floor of 60 tracts for entering the comparison, so none is dropped.

Table 6. The dental visit rate falls with deprivation in all 51 states, and the checkup slope is within 0.5 points of zero in 42

None of this removes the model's inputs, and a slope within counties still shows how the model maps composition into prevalence. What the comparison does show is that two measures that share every input, the checkup and the dental visit, have slopes that differ in size by a factor of 8.8 or more in every specification that holds the state or county fixed.

### The supply of providers is thinner in deprived counties

In 1971 the physician Julian Tudor Hart observed that the availability of good medical care tends to vary inversely with the need for it in the population served.[3] Read descriptively, the inverse care law predicts that counties with more deprivation, where measures of illness are higher, have fewer providers for their residents. County Health Rankings (CHR) counts providers by county: primary care physicians in 2021, dentists in 2022 and mental health providers in 2023.[4] Primary care physicians are practicing non-federal physicians in general practice, family medicine, internal medicine and pediatrics. Dentists are those with a National Provider Identifier. Mental health providers include psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, counselors and therapists, and nurse practitioners who specialize in mental health. Across the 3,143 counties there is one primary care physician for every 1,334 residents, one dentist for every 1,361 and one mental health provider for every 319.

Ranking 3,128 counties on a county ADI, the population-weighted mean of tract ranks, and pooling each tenth, residents per primary care physician rise from 1,159 (95% CI 1,093 to 1,205) in the least deprived tenth of counties to 2,730 (95% CI 2,452 to 3,018) in the most deprived, a ratio of 2.4 (95% CI 2.1 to 2.6). For dentists the figures are 1,131 and 3,055, a ratio of 2.7 (95% CI 2.3 to 3.1).

For mental health providers they are 250 and 550, a ratio of 2.2 (95% CI 1.5 to 3.5). The most deprived tenth, though, has fewer residents per mental health provider than the ninth, and its interval is wide (Table 7).

Weighted by county residents, the county ADI correlates −0.41 (95% CI −0.46 to −0.35) with physicians per hundred thousand residents, −0.52 (95% CI −0.61 to −0.41) with dentists and −0.42 (95% CI −0.53 to −0.26) with mental health providers. Counting each county once, the correlations are −0.37 (95% CI −0.43 to −0.32), −0.35 (95% CI −0.45 to −0.27) and −0.33 (95% CI −0.44 to −0.23), smaller in size but still negative.

Table 7. Residents per primary care physician rise from 1,159 to 2,730 and per dentist from 1,131 to 3,055 between the least and most deprived tenths of counties

 (Note: Residents per provider here is a county group's residents divided by its providers, so a county with no provider adds residents and no providers. CHR leaves the ratio blank for a county with no provider when its population is above 2,000 for physicians, 4,000 for dentists and 1,000 for mental health providers, and reports a rate of zero for smaller counties. The first edition of this book dropped the blank ones and averaged the county ratios. That average is larger in every tenth for all three provider types, because small counties with one or two providers have very large ratios.)

Counties with no provider stay in these figures. Among all 3,143 counties there are 232 with no recorded primary care physician, 239 with no dentist and 216 with no mental health provider; the 15 counties without a deprivation rank are outside the tenths.

Table 8 maps residents per mental health provider. In 275 counties the ratio is above 3,200, and 91.6% of those counties are majority rural. Most lie in the South and the Midwest (96.0%). The 216 gray counties have no recorded provider, so the ratio is undefined for them and their supply is the thinnest of all.

Table 8. Residents per mental health provider exceed 3,200 in 275 counties, and 91.6% of those counties have a mostly rural population

Two other county measures move with the same index. Preventable hospital stays, admissions for conditions that outpatient care can often manage, were 2,370 (95% CI 2,188 to 2,599) per hundred thousand Medicare enrollees in the least deprived tenth of counties and 4,012 (95% CI 3,608 to 4,435) in the most deprived, and the county ADI correlates +0.46 (95% CI 0.31 to 0.56) with the rate, +0.38 (95% CI 0.30 to 0.46) counting each county once.

The CHR food environment index, a county score that combines access to healthy food with food insecurity and on which a higher value is better, falls from 8.6 (95% CI 8.5 to 8.8) to 6.1 (95% CI 5.7 to 6.6) across the same tenths, and correlates −0.66 (95% CI −0.74 to −0.59) with the county ADI, −0.51 (95% CI −0.58 to −0.45) counting each county once.

### Evidence on coverage and capacity

> Causal evidence: Coverage expansions and community health centers (Randomized lottery; difference-in-differences)
>
> The gradients above describe places. Four studies ask whether adding coverage or capacity changes the use of care and health for the people who gain it.
>
> In 2008 Oregon drew names by lottery for the chance to apply for Medicaid, so the people selected could be compared with the people who were not. In the first year, Medicaid coverage raised the use of health care, including primary and preventive care, lowered out-of-pocket medical spending and medical debt, and improved self-reported health.[5] At the later follow-up, coverage raised the use of preventive services, raised the detection and management of diabetes and lowered the rate of positive screens for depression, but produced no significant change in measured blood pressure, cholesterol or glycated hemoglobin.[6]
>
> Miller, Johnson and Wherry linked survey records to death records and compared near-elderly adults in states that expanded Medicaid under the Affordable Care Act with those in states that did not, before and after the expansions. This difference-in-differences design, checked with an event study of the years before the expansions, found lower annual mortality in the expansion states.[7] Bailey and Goodman-Bacon applied a difference-in-differences event study to the 1965 to 1974 rollout of community health centers, comparing counties that opened a center earlier with counties that opened one later, and found lower mortality among older adults in the counties that opened a center earlier.[8]
>
> The Oregon and Medicaid studies change insurance coverage, which is not the same as changing the number of dentists or mental health providers in a county, and the health center study changes clinic capacity. The estimates apply to the people and years each study covers, and none of the four measures what adding providers to the counties in the figures would do.

### Residents per primary care physician rise under all four rankings

Over the 3,125 counties that have all four rankings, the ADI baseline runs from 1,164 (95% CI 1,100 to 1,210) residents per primary care physician in the least deprived tenth of counties to 2,749 (95% CI 2,473 to 3,038) in the most deprived, with a rank correlation of +1.00 between tenth and ratio (Table 9). The standardized index, which applies the ADI's coefficients after standardizing each measure, gives 1,094 (95% CI 1,037 to 1,170) and 2,687 (95% CI 2,514 to 2,973), with a correlation of +0.99. Ranked by median household income the tenths run from 1,104 (95% CI 1,041 to 1,175) to 2,615 (95% CI 2,386 to 2,921), and ranked by the bachelor's degree share from 1,010 (95% CI 965 to 1,060) to 3,520 (95% CI 3,228 to 3,805). Under each ranking the two ends differ and the ratio rises steadily toward the deprived end, so none of the three alternatives changes the gradient under the book's rule (Chapter 9.1, How far one ranking goes (https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/how-far-one-ranking-goes)).

Table 9. Residents per primary care physician is steadily worse toward the more deprived end under the ADI and under each of the three other rankings

### What these data cannot show

PLACES values are modeled estimates, and the tract file has no intervals, so the bands in this chapter describe the sampling of counties and not the model's own uncertainty. The model and the Area Deprivation Index draw on overlapping census inputs, which builds part of each gradient into the numbers, and the data cannot say how much. The values are crude prevalence among adults and are not adjusted for age. CDC advises against using them to rank the overall health of an area or to track change at the local level, which this chapter does not do.[9] The slopes and coefficients compare tracts and say nothing about the behavior of a person. Within a county the model gives tracts different values only through their demographic composition, so the comparison of the checkup and the dental visit within counties cannot separate behavior from composition at all.

The checkup measure is the share of adults who report a routine checkup in the past year, and the dental measure is the share who report a dental visit. Neither says what happened at the visit, whether the care was timely or whether it was affordable. Dental coverage is a separate matter from medical coverage, and the chapter has no measure of it.

Provider counts locate providers where they practice and divide by residents. They do not measure capacity, wait times or whether a provider accepts a patient's insurance, and county averages hide deserts inside counties and care that crosses county lines. The three provider counts come from different years, 2021 to 2023, and the PLACES estimates describe 2022 on an index built from 2019 to 2023 census data, so the sources do not describe one moment. Connecticut appears in PLACES under planning-region codes, which serve as its counties for the bootstrap, and in CHR under its eight legacy counties. 15 small counties have no deprivation rank and are left out of the tenths in the provider figures, and Puerto Rico is covered by neither PLACES nor the maps.

The association between supply and deprivation could run in either direction or through a third factor such as rurality, and the figures do not separate them. The studies in the box concern coverage and clinic capacity, and none of them estimates how a change in the supply of providers would alter the county gradients.

## Tables

### Table 1. 11 measures are at least 4.8 points more common in the most deprived tenth of tracts than in the least deprived, and the annual checkup is 3.6 points more common

Adults with each condition or behavior, percentage points above the least deprived tenth of tracts, by twentieth of tracts ranked on the Area Deprivation Index national percentile, 2022

| Measure | Mean ADI percentile | Prevalence (%) | Points above least deprived tenth | Lower limit of the 95% interval | Upper limit of the 95% interval | Multiple of least deprived tenth | Tracts |
| --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 3.5 | 9.1 | −0.3 | −0.5 | −0.1 | 0.96 | 4,307 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 8.7 | 9.9 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 1.04 | 3,967 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 13.7 | 10.2 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 1.1 | 1.07 | 4,246 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 18.5 | 10.5 | 1.1 | 0.5 | 1.6 | 1.11 | 3,872 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 23.3 | 10.3 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 1.2 | 1.09 | 4,314 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 28.2 | 10.6 | 1.1 | 0.7 | 1.7 | 1.12 | 4,197 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 33.0 | 10.7 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 1.7 | 1.13 | 4,082 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 37.7 | 11.0 | 1.5 | 1.1 | 2.0 | 1.16 | 4,179 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 42.5 | 11.3 | 1.8 | 1.4 | 2.3 | 1.19 | 3,944 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 47.3 | 11.6 | 2.1 | 1.7 | 2.6 | 1.22 | 4,245 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 52.1 | 11.9 | 2.4 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 1.26 | 4,090 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 56.8 | 12.3 | 2.8 | 2.3 | 3.3 | 1.29 | 4,228 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 61.5 | 12.6 | 3.1 | 2.6 | 3.7 | 1.33 | 4,008 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 66.2 | 13.0 | 3.5 | 3.0 | 4.1 | 1.37 | 4,297 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 71.0 | 13.4 | 3.9 | 3.4 | 4.5 | 1.41 | 4,044 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 75.8 | 13.8 | 4.4 | 3.9 | 4.9 | 1.46 | 4,194 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 80.7 | 14.4 | 4.9 | 4.4 | 5.5 | 1.52 | 4,171 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 85.9 | 15.2 | 5.7 | 5.2 | 6.3 | 1.60 | 4,183 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 91.3 | 16.4 | 6.9 | 6.4 | 7.5 | 1.73 | 4,206 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | 97.1 | 18.9 | 9.5 | 8.9 | 10.1 | 2.00 | 4,007 |
| Obesity | 3.5 | 22.5 | −1.4 | −1.7 | −1.1 | 0.94 | 4,307 |
| Obesity | 8.7 | 25.4 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.06 | 3,967 |
| Obesity | 13.7 | 27.4 | 3.5 | 2.9 | 4.2 | 1.15 | 4,246 |
| Obesity | 18.5 | 28.8 | 4.9 | 4.1 | 5.6 | 1.21 | 3,872 |
| Obesity | 23.3 | 29.8 | 6.0 | 5.1 | 6.7 | 1.25 | 4,314 |
| Obesity | 28.2 | 31.1 | 7.3 | 6.3 | 8.1 | 1.30 | 4,197 |
| Obesity | 33.0 | 31.7 | 7.9 | 7.0 | 8.7 | 1.33 | 4,082 |
| Obesity | 37.7 | 32.6 | 8.7 | 7.8 | 9.5 | 1.37 | 4,179 |
| Obesity | 42.5 | 33.5 | 9.6 | 8.7 | 10.4 | 1.40 | 3,944 |
| Obesity | 47.3 | 34.2 | 10.4 | 9.4 | 11.1 | 1.43 | 4,245 |
| Obesity | 52.1 | 35.0 | 11.1 | 10.2 | 11.9 | 1.47 | 4,090 |
| Obesity | 56.8 | 35.8 | 11.9 | 11.0 | 12.7 | 1.50 | 4,228 |
| Obesity | 61.5 | 36.4 | 12.5 | 11.6 | 13.3 | 1.53 | 4,008 |
| Obesity | 66.2 | 37.3 | 13.4 | 12.5 | 14.2 | 1.56 | 4,297 |
| Obesity | 71.0 | 38.0 | 14.2 | 13.3 | 15.0 | 1.59 | 4,044 |
| Obesity | 75.8 | 38.7 | 14.8 | 13.9 | 15.6 | 1.62 | 4,194 |
| Obesity | 80.7 | 39.6 | 15.8 | 14.9 | 16.6 | 1.66 | 4,171 |
| Obesity | 85.9 | 40.6 | 16.8 | 15.9 | 17.5 | 1.70 | 4,183 |
| Obesity | 91.3 | 42.3 | 18.4 | 17.5 | 19.2 | 1.77 | 4,206 |
| Obesity | 97.1 | 45.8 | 21.9 | 20.9 | 22.8 | 1.92 | 4,007 |
| Current smoking | 3.5 | 8.4 | −0.6 | −0.8 | −0.4 | 0.93 | 4,307 |
| Current smoking | 8.7 | 9.7 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 1.07 | 3,967 |
| Current smoking | 13.7 | 10.5 | 1.4 | 0.8 | 1.8 | 1.16 | 4,246 |
| Current smoking | 18.5 | 11.0 | 2.0 | 1.4 | 2.5 | 1.22 | 3,872 |
| Current smoking | 23.3 | 11.3 | 2.2 | 1.6 | 2.7 | 1.25 | 4,314 |
| Current smoking | 28.2 | 11.9 | 2.9 | 2.3 | 3.5 | 1.32 | 4,197 |
| Current smoking | 33.0 | 12.3 | 3.3 | 2.7 | 3.8 | 1.36 | 4,082 |
| Current smoking | 37.7 | 13.0 | 3.9 | 3.3 | 4.5 | 1.43 | 4,179 |
| Current smoking | 42.5 | 13.5 | 4.5 | 3.9 | 5.0 | 1.49 | 3,944 |
| Current smoking | 47.3 | 14.2 | 5.2 | 4.6 | 5.7 | 1.57 | 4,245 |
| Current smoking | 52.1 | 14.8 | 5.7 | 5.2 | 6.3 | 1.63 | 4,090 |
| Current smoking | 56.8 | 15.4 | 6.3 | 5.8 | 6.9 | 1.70 | 4,228 |
| Current smoking | 61.5 | 16.0 | 6.9 | 6.4 | 7.5 | 1.76 | 4,008 |
| Current smoking | 66.2 | 16.8 | 7.7 | 7.2 | 8.3 | 1.85 | 4,297 |
| Current smoking | 71.0 | 17.4 | 8.3 | 7.8 | 8.9 | 1.92 | 4,044 |
| Current smoking | 75.8 | 18.1 | 9.1 | 8.5 | 9.6 | 2.00 | 4,194 |
| Current smoking | 80.7 | 19.0 | 9.9 | 9.3 | 10.4 | 2.09 | 4,171 |
| Current smoking | 85.9 | 20.0 | 10.9 | 10.3 | 11.5 | 2.20 | 4,183 |
| Current smoking | 91.3 | 21.4 | 12.3 | 11.7 | 12.9 | 2.36 | 4,206 |
| Current smoking | 97.1 | 24.6 | 15.5 | 14.8 | 16.2 | 2.71 | 4,007 |
| Depression | 3.5 | 19.3 | −0.2 | −0.5 | 0.0 | 0.99 | 4,307 |
| Depression | 8.7 | 19.8 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 1.01 | 3,967 |
| Depression | 13.7 | 20.4 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 1.3 | 1.04 | 4,246 |
| Depression | 18.5 | 20.7 | 1.1 | 0.7 | 1.6 | 1.06 | 3,872 |
| Depression | 23.3 | 21.3 | 1.8 | 1.2 | 2.4 | 1.09 | 4,314 |
| Depression | 28.2 | 21.4 | 1.9 | 1.2 | 2.5 | 1.09 | 4,197 |
| Depression | 33.0 | 21.7 | 2.2 | 1.5 | 2.9 | 1.11 | 4,082 |
| Depression | 37.7 | 22.0 | 2.4 | 1.8 | 3.1 | 1.12 | 4,179 |
| Depression | 42.5 | 22.2 | 2.6 | 1.9 | 3.3 | 1.13 | 3,944 |
| Depression | 47.3 | 22.5 | 3.0 | 2.3 | 3.7 | 1.15 | 4,245 |
| Depression | 52.1 | 22.8 | 3.2 | 2.5 | 4.0 | 1.17 | 4,090 |
| Depression | 56.8 | 23.1 | 3.5 | 2.8 | 4.2 | 1.18 | 4,228 |
| Depression | 61.5 | 23.2 | 3.6 | 2.9 | 4.4 | 1.19 | 4,008 |
| Depression | 66.2 | 23.5 | 4.0 | 3.3 | 4.7 | 1.20 | 4,297 |
| Depression | 71.0 | 23.7 | 4.2 | 3.5 | 4.9 | 1.22 | 4,044 |
| Depression | 75.8 | 24.0 | 4.4 | 3.7 | 5.2 | 1.23 | 4,194 |
| Depression | 80.7 | 24.2 | 4.7 | 4.0 | 5.4 | 1.24 | 4,171 |
| Depression | 85.9 | 24.4 | 4.9 | 4.2 | 5.6 | 1.25 | 4,183 |
| Depression | 91.3 | 24.4 | 4.9 | 4.2 | 5.6 | 1.25 | 4,206 |
| Depression | 97.1 | 24.3 | 4.8 | 4.1 | 5.6 | 1.25 | 4,007 |
| Frequent mental distress | 3.5 | 13.4 | −0.4 | −0.6 | −0.2 | 0.97 | 4,307 |
| Frequent mental distress | 8.7 | 14.3 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 1.03 | 3,967 |
| Frequent mental distress | 13.7 | 15.0 | 1.1 | 0.7 | 1.5 | 1.08 | 4,246 |
| Frequent mental distress | 18.5 | 15.3 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.11 | 3,872 |
| Frequent mental distress | 23.3 | 15.5 | 1.7 | 1.3 | 2.0 | 1.12 | 4,314 |
| Frequent mental distress | 28.2 | 15.7 | 1.9 | 1.4 | 2.3 | 1.13 | 4,197 |
| Frequent mental distress | 33.0 | 15.9 | 2.1 | 1.6 | 2.5 | 1.15 | 4,082 |
| Frequent mental distress | 37.7 | 16.2 | 2.4 | 1.9 | 2.9 | 1.17 | 4,179 |
| Frequent mental distress | 42.5 | 16.5 | 2.6 | 2.2 | 3.1 | 1.19 | 3,944 |
| Frequent mental distress | 47.3 | 16.7 | 2.9 | 2.5 | 3.4 | 1.21 | 4,245 |
| Frequent mental distress | 52.1 | 17.1 | 3.3 | 2.9 | 3.8 | 1.24 | 4,090 |
| Frequent mental distress | 56.8 | 17.4 | 3.5 | 3.1 | 4.0 | 1.25 | 4,228 |
| Frequent mental distress | 61.5 | 17.7 | 3.9 | 3.4 | 4.3 | 1.28 | 4,008 |
| Frequent mental distress | 66.2 | 18.0 | 4.2 | 3.8 | 4.7 | 1.30 | 4,297 |
| Frequent mental distress | 71.0 | 18.4 | 4.5 | 4.1 | 5.0 | 1.33 | 4,044 |
| Frequent mental distress | 75.8 | 18.7 | 4.9 | 4.5 | 5.4 | 1.35 | 4,194 |
| Frequent mental distress | 80.7 | 19.0 | 5.2 | 4.8 | 5.7 | 1.37 | 4,171 |
| Frequent mental distress | 85.9 | 19.5 | 5.7 | 5.3 | 6.2 | 1.41 | 4,183 |
| Frequent mental distress | 91.3 | 20.3 | 6.4 | 6.0 | 6.9 | 1.46 | 4,206 |
| Frequent mental distress | 97.1 | 21.9 | 8.1 | 7.6 | 8.6 | 1.58 | 4,007 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 3.5 | 16.8 | −1.0 | −1.5 | −0.5 | 0.94 | 4,307 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 8.7 | 18.9 | 1.1 | 0.5 | 1.5 | 1.06 | 3,967 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 13.7 | 19.8 | 2.0 | 0.6 | 3.3 | 1.11 | 4,246 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 18.5 | 20.8 | 3.0 | 1.3 | 4.6 | 1.17 | 3,872 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 23.3 | 20.5 | 2.7 | 1.2 | 3.9 | 1.15 | 4,314 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 28.2 | 21.4 | 3.5 | 2.0 | 5.3 | 1.20 | 4,197 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 33.0 | 21.5 | 3.7 | 2.3 | 5.0 | 1.21 | 4,082 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 37.7 | 22.3 | 4.5 | 3.1 | 5.9 | 1.25 | 4,179 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 42.5 | 23.0 | 5.2 | 3.8 | 6.6 | 1.29 | 3,944 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 47.3 | 23.8 | 6.0 | 4.5 | 7.3 | 1.33 | 4,245 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 52.1 | 24.7 | 6.9 | 5.5 | 8.3 | 1.39 | 4,090 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 56.8 | 25.4 | 7.6 | 6.2 | 9.0 | 1.43 | 4,228 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 61.5 | 26.3 | 8.5 | 7.1 | 9.9 | 1.48 | 4,008 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 66.2 | 27.3 | 9.5 | 8.1 | 10.9 | 1.53 | 4,297 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 71.0 | 28.2 | 10.4 | 9.0 | 11.8 | 1.59 | 4,044 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 75.8 | 29.2 | 11.4 | 10.1 | 12.8 | 1.64 | 4,194 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 80.7 | 30.4 | 12.6 | 11.2 | 14.0 | 1.71 | 4,171 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 85.9 | 32.0 | 14.2 | 12.8 | 15.6 | 1.80 | 4,183 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 91.3 | 34.3 | 16.5 | 15.1 | 17.9 | 1.93 | 4,206 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | 97.1 | 38.7 | 20.9 | 19.5 | 22.3 | 2.17 | 4,007 |
| Short sleep duration | 3.5 | 31.9 | −0.8 | −1.1 | −0.5 | 0.97 | 4,307 |
| Short sleep duration | 8.7 | 33.6 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 1.3 | 1.03 | 3,967 |
| Short sleep duration | 13.7 | 34.2 | 1.5 | 0.5 | 2.2 | 1.04 | 4,246 |
| Short sleep duration | 18.5 | 34.6 | 1.8 | 0.7 | 2.8 | 1.06 | 3,872 |
| Short sleep duration | 23.3 | 34.4 | 1.6 | 0.5 | 2.7 | 1.05 | 4,314 |
| Short sleep duration | 28.2 | 34.7 | 2.0 | 0.8 | 3.2 | 1.06 | 4,197 |
| Short sleep duration | 33.0 | 34.8 | 2.1 | 0.9 | 3.2 | 1.06 | 4,082 |
| Short sleep duration | 37.7 | 35.3 | 2.6 | 1.4 | 3.8 | 1.08 | 4,179 |
| Short sleep duration | 42.5 | 35.5 | 2.8 | 1.6 | 4.0 | 1.09 | 3,944 |
| Short sleep duration | 47.3 | 35.9 | 3.2 | 2.0 | 4.3 | 1.10 | 4,245 |
| Short sleep duration | 52.1 | 36.4 | 3.7 | 2.5 | 4.9 | 1.11 | 4,090 |
| Short sleep duration | 56.8 | 36.7 | 4.0 | 2.8 | 5.2 | 1.12 | 4,228 |
| Short sleep duration | 61.5 | 37.2 | 4.5 | 3.2 | 5.6 | 1.14 | 4,008 |
| Short sleep duration | 66.2 | 37.5 | 4.8 | 3.6 | 6.0 | 1.15 | 4,297 |
| Short sleep duration | 71.0 | 38.0 | 5.3 | 4.1 | 6.5 | 1.16 | 4,044 |
| Short sleep duration | 75.8 | 38.4 | 5.7 | 4.5 | 6.9 | 1.18 | 4,194 |
| Short sleep duration | 80.7 | 38.9 | 6.2 | 5.0 | 7.4 | 1.19 | 4,171 |
| Short sleep duration | 85.9 | 39.7 | 7.0 | 5.8 | 8.2 | 1.21 | 4,183 |
| Short sleep duration | 91.3 | 41.1 | 8.4 | 7.2 | 9.6 | 1.26 | 4,206 |
| Short sleep duration | 97.1 | 44.4 | 11.7 | 10.5 | 13.1 | 1.36 | 4,007 |
| Food insecurity | 3.5 | 8.3 | −1.0 | −1.7 | −0.3 | 0.89 | 3,228 |
| Food insecurity | 8.7 | 10.5 | 1.2 | 0.3 | 1.9 | 1.13 | 2,713 |
| Food insecurity | 13.7 | 12.3 | 2.9 | 1.1 | 4.9 | 1.31 | 2,931 |
| Food insecurity | 18.5 | 13.4 | 4.1 | 1.8 | 6.6 | 1.44 | 2,860 |
| Food insecurity | 23.3 | 12.4 | 3.0 | 1.8 | 4.7 | 1.32 | 3,253 |
| Food insecurity | 28.2 | 12.4 | 3.0 | 2.1 | 4.2 | 1.32 | 3,173 |
| Food insecurity | 33.0 | 12.8 | 3.5 | 2.5 | 4.9 | 1.38 | 3,183 |
| Food insecurity | 37.7 | 13.6 | 4.3 | 3.0 | 6.0 | 1.46 | 3,348 |
| Food insecurity | 42.5 | 14.1 | 4.8 | 3.6 | 6.4 | 1.51 | 3,125 |
| Food insecurity | 47.3 | 14.6 | 5.3 | 3.9 | 7.0 | 1.57 | 3,362 |
| Food insecurity | 52.1 | 15.4 | 6.1 | 4.7 | 7.8 | 1.65 | 3,211 |
| Food insecurity | 56.8 | 15.9 | 6.6 | 5.1 | 8.4 | 1.71 | 3,394 |
| Food insecurity | 61.5 | 16.9 | 7.5 | 6.0 | 9.3 | 1.80 | 3,104 |
| Food insecurity | 66.2 | 17.6 | 8.2 | 6.6 | 10.2 | 1.88 | 3,329 |
| Food insecurity | 71.0 | 18.3 | 9.0 | 7.5 | 10.7 | 1.96 | 3,194 |
| Food insecurity | 75.8 | 19.4 | 10.0 | 8.5 | 11.8 | 2.08 | 3,238 |
| Food insecurity | 80.7 | 20.2 | 10.8 | 9.3 | 12.6 | 2.16 | 3,183 |
| Food insecurity | 85.9 | 22.1 | 12.8 | 11.3 | 14.5 | 2.37 | 3,193 |
| Food insecurity | 91.3 | 25.7 | 16.4 | 14.8 | 18.3 | 2.75 | 3,247 |
| Food insecurity | 97.1 | 33.8 | 24.4 | 22.7 | 26.3 | 3.62 | 3,101 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 3.5 | 5.6 | −0.8 | −1.1 | −0.4 | 0.88 | 4,307 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 8.7 | 7.1 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 1.2 | 1.13 | 3,967 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 13.7 | 8.2 | 1.9 | 0.8 | 3.0 | 1.29 | 4,246 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 18.5 | 9.3 | 3.0 | 1.7 | 4.6 | 1.48 | 3,872 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 23.3 | 9.1 | 2.8 | 1.8 | 3.8 | 1.44 | 4,314 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 28.2 | 9.7 | 3.4 | 2.5 | 4.3 | 1.54 | 4,197 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 33.0 | 10.0 | 3.7 | 2.9 | 4.5 | 1.58 | 4,082 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 37.7 | 10.6 | 4.3 | 3.4 | 5.3 | 1.68 | 4,179 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 42.5 | 11.0 | 4.7 | 3.8 | 5.6 | 1.74 | 3,944 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 47.3 | 11.2 | 4.9 | 4.0 | 5.8 | 1.77 | 4,245 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 52.1 | 11.8 | 5.5 | 4.5 | 6.5 | 1.87 | 4,090 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 56.8 | 12.1 | 5.8 | 4.7 | 6.9 | 1.92 | 4,228 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 61.5 | 12.8 | 6.5 | 5.3 | 7.7 | 2.03 | 4,008 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 66.2 | 12.8 | 6.5 | 5.3 | 7.8 | 2.02 | 4,297 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 71.0 | 13.1 | 6.8 | 5.7 | 8.1 | 2.08 | 4,044 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 75.8 | 13.6 | 7.3 | 6.1 | 8.7 | 2.16 | 4,194 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 80.7 | 13.9 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 8.9 | 2.21 | 4,171 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 85.9 | 14.8 | 8.4 | 7.3 | 9.8 | 2.34 | 4,183 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 91.3 | 16.5 | 10.2 | 8.7 | 11.9 | 2.62 | 4,206 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | 97.1 | 18.5 | 12.2 | 10.8 | 14.0 | 2.94 | 4,007 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 3.5 | 6.6 | −0.6 | −0.9 | −0.3 | 0.92 | 4,307 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 8.7 | 7.8 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.9 | 1.09 | 3,967 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 13.7 | 8.5 | 1.4 | 0.2 | 2.3 | 1.19 | 4,246 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 18.5 | 9.2 | 2.0 | 0.7 | 3.0 | 1.28 | 3,872 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 23.3 | 9.3 | 2.1 | 0.9 | 3.1 | 1.29 | 4,314 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 28.2 | 9.9 | 2.7 | 1.4 | 3.9 | 1.37 | 4,197 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 33.0 | 10.1 | 2.9 | 1.8 | 3.7 | 1.40 | 4,082 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 37.7 | 10.6 | 3.4 | 2.2 | 4.3 | 1.48 | 4,179 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 42.5 | 11.3 | 4.1 | 2.9 | 5.0 | 1.57 | 3,944 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 47.3 | 11.9 | 4.7 | 3.6 | 5.7 | 1.66 | 4,245 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 52.1 | 12.7 | 5.5 | 4.4 | 6.5 | 1.77 | 4,090 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 56.8 | 13.4 | 6.3 | 5.1 | 7.2 | 1.87 | 4,228 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 61.5 | 14.3 | 7.1 | 5.9 | 8.0 | 1.98 | 4,008 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 66.2 | 15.3 | 8.1 | 6.9 | 9.1 | 2.13 | 4,297 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 71.0 | 16.2 | 9.0 | 7.8 | 9.9 | 2.25 | 4,044 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 75.8 | 17.4 | 10.2 | 9.1 | 11.1 | 2.42 | 4,194 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 80.7 | 18.5 | 11.3 | 10.1 | 12.2 | 2.57 | 4,171 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 85.9 | 20.3 | 13.1 | 12.0 | 14.0 | 2.83 | 4,183 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 91.3 | 23.0 | 15.8 | 14.6 | 16.7 | 3.20 | 4,206 |
| All teeth lost, ages 65 and over | 97.1 | 29.5 | 22.3 | 21.1 | 23.4 | 4.11 | 4,007 |
| Fair or poor health | 3.5 | 12.7 | −0.8 | −1.2 | −0.3 | 0.94 | 4,307 |
| Fair or poor health | 8.7 | 14.3 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 1.2 | 1.06 | 3,967 |
| Fair or poor health | 13.7 | 15.2 | 1.7 | 0.6 | 2.9 | 1.13 | 4,246 |
| Fair or poor health | 18.5 | 16.1 | 2.7 | 1.2 | 4.3 | 1.20 | 3,872 |
| Fair or poor health | 23.3 | 15.7 | 2.2 | 1.2 | 3.2 | 1.16 | 4,314 |
| Fair or poor health | 28.2 | 16.2 | 2.8 | 1.7 | 4.1 | 1.21 | 4,197 |
| Fair or poor health | 33.0 | 16.2 | 2.8 | 1.9 | 3.8 | 1.21 | 4,082 |
| Fair or poor health | 37.7 | 16.9 | 3.4 | 2.5 | 4.5 | 1.25 | 4,179 |
| Fair or poor health | 42.5 | 17.4 | 3.9 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 1.29 | 3,944 |
| Fair or poor health | 47.3 | 18.0 | 4.5 | 3.6 | 5.6 | 1.33 | 4,245 |
| Fair or poor health | 52.1 | 18.7 | 5.2 | 4.3 | 6.3 | 1.39 | 4,090 |
| Fair or poor health | 56.8 | 19.3 | 5.8 | 4.9 | 7.0 | 1.43 | 4,228 |
| Fair or poor health | 61.5 | 20.2 | 6.7 | 5.7 | 7.8 | 1.50 | 4,008 |
| Fair or poor health | 66.2 | 20.9 | 7.5 | 6.5 | 8.6 | 1.55 | 4,297 |
| Fair or poor health | 71.0 | 21.7 | 8.2 | 7.3 | 9.3 | 1.61 | 4,044 |
| Fair or poor health | 75.8 | 22.7 | 9.2 | 8.3 | 10.4 | 1.69 | 4,194 |
| Fair or poor health | 80.7 | 23.7 | 10.3 | 9.3 | 11.4 | 1.76 | 4,171 |
| Fair or poor health | 85.9 | 25.3 | 11.9 | 10.9 | 13.0 | 1.88 | 4,183 |
| Fair or poor health | 91.3 | 27.8 | 14.4 | 13.3 | 15.6 | 2.07 | 4,206 |
| Fair or poor health | 97.1 | 32.9 | 19.5 | 18.4 | 20.6 | 2.45 | 4,007 |
| Annual checkup | 3.5 | 74.0 | −0.1 | −0.6 | 0.4 | 1.00 | 4,307 |
| Annual checkup | 8.7 | 74.3 | 0.1 | −0.4 | 0.8 | 1.00 | 3,967 |
| Annual checkup | 13.7 | 74.3 | 0.2 | −0.7 | 1.2 | 1.00 | 4,246 |
| Annual checkup | 18.5 | 74.2 | 0.1 | −0.9 | 1.2 | 1.00 | 3,872 |
| Annual checkup | 23.3 | 74.5 | 0.3 | −0.6 | 1.3 | 1.00 | 4,314 |
| Annual checkup | 28.2 | 74.8 | 0.7 | −0.4 | 1.7 | 1.01 | 4,197 |
| Annual checkup | 33.0 | 74.8 | 0.7 | −0.4 | 1.6 | 1.01 | 4,082 |
| Annual checkup | 37.7 | 75.0 | 0.8 | −0.3 | 1.8 | 1.01 | 4,179 |
| Annual checkup | 42.5 | 75.3 | 1.1 | 0.0 | 2.1 | 1.01 | 3,944 |
| Annual checkup | 47.3 | 75.6 | 1.5 | 0.3 | 2.5 | 1.02 | 4,245 |
| Annual checkup | 52.1 | 75.7 | 1.6 | 0.4 | 2.5 | 1.02 | 4,090 |
| Annual checkup | 56.8 | 76.0 | 1.8 | 0.7 | 2.8 | 1.02 | 4,228 |
| Annual checkup | 61.5 | 76.0 | 1.9 | 0.7 | 2.9 | 1.02 | 4,008 |
| Annual checkup | 66.2 | 76.4 | 2.2 | 1.1 | 3.2 | 1.03 | 4,297 |
| Annual checkup | 71.0 | 76.6 | 2.4 | 1.2 | 3.4 | 1.03 | 4,044 |
| Annual checkup | 75.8 | 76.7 | 2.5 | 1.4 | 3.5 | 1.03 | 4,194 |
| Annual checkup | 80.7 | 77.0 | 2.9 | 1.7 | 3.9 | 1.04 | 4,171 |
| Annual checkup | 85.9 | 77.2 | 3.1 | 1.9 | 4.1 | 1.04 | 4,183 |
| Annual checkup | 91.3 | 77.4 | 3.3 | 2.1 | 4.3 | 1.04 | 4,206 |
| Annual checkup | 97.1 | 78.2 | 4.0 | 2.8 | 5.0 | 1.05 | 4,007 |

Views: Points above the least deprived tenth (every row); Multiple of the least deprived tenth (every row).

Note: PLACES values are modeled estimates. They are built from BRFSS survey responses with census and American Community Survey inputs (county poverty, the age, sex, race and ethnicity of each tract's residents, and education), with state and county random effects, and the Area Deprivation Index is built from American Community Survey data too, so part of each gradient here is mechanical. Within a county, tract values differ through the demographic composition of tracts. The tract file has no intervals; the bands are 95% intervals for the weighted mean from a bootstrap over counties (replicates and seed in the methods note).

Note: PLACES 2024 release: BRFSS 2022 for most measures and BRFSS 2021 for blood pressure, blood pressure medicine, high cholesterol and cholesterol screening. Values are crude prevalence among adults, not age-adjusted, so differences in age structure move them.

Note: The zero line is the weighted mean of the least deprived tenth of tracts. Tenths hold 8,118 to 8,511 tracts, because tied ranks fall in the same tenth, and twentieths hold fewer, so the first points sit slightly below the line. The food insecurity panel covers fewer tracts, because that question was asked in only some states, so its first points reflect which states fall in each twentieth.

Note: The twelve measures are this book's selection from the 40 that PLACES publishes for tracts: conditions and behaviors that the first edition followed, insurance and food insecurity, and the checkup. Tract means weight each tract by all its adults, including for the measures that cover only some ages, such as insurance and tooth loss, because the file carries no population for them.

Note: Panel scales are shared, so the prevalence in each twentieth is in the table under Show data.

Source: CDC PLACES 2024 release (BRFSS 2022) and Area Deprivation Index 2023; modeled estimates, population-weighted (adults in each tract)

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/twelve_outcome_gradients.json

### Table 2. Binge drinking is higher in higher-income tracts in 50 of 51 states, while the other measures are lower in higher-income tracts in all 51 states

Points of prevalence per doubling of tract median household income, one dot per state and measure, adults, with controls for the age, Black and Hispanic shares of residents, 2022

| Behavior | State | Points per doubling | Lower limit of the 95% interval | Upper limit of the 95% interval | Tracts |
| --- | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
| Current smoking | Alabama | −5.29 | −6.54 | −4.05 | 1,423 |
| Current smoking | Alaska | −8.13 | −10.80 | −5.45 | 173 |
| Current smoking | Arizona | −5.12 | −7.05 | −3.18 | 1,725 |
| Current smoking | Arkansas | −6.01 | −7.17 | −4.85 | 818 |
| Current smoking | California | −3.66 | −4.10 | −3.23 | 9,003 |
| Current smoking | Colorado | −2.88 | −3.61 | −2.15 | 1,423 |
| Current smoking | Connecticut | −3.76 | −4.87 | −2.65 | 870 |
| Current smoking | Delaware | −3.63 | −5.14 | −2.13 | 256 |
| Current smoking | District of Columbia | −2.38 | −3.45 | −1.32 | 201 |
| Current smoking | Florida | −4.95 | −5.54 | −4.36 | 5,053 |
| Current smoking | Georgia | −5.70 | −6.27 | −5.14 | 2,766 |
| Current smoking | Hawaii | −3.96 | −4.52 | −3.40 | 419 |
| Current smoking | Idaho | −3.30 | −4.00 | −2.59 | 453 |
| Current smoking | Illinois | −4.67 | −5.93 | −3.42 | 3,239 |
| Current smoking | Indiana | −5.07 | −6.55 | −3.60 | 1,678 |
| Current smoking | Iowa | −4.47 | −5.64 | −3.31 | 890 |
| Current smoking | Kansas | −5.16 | −6.46 | −3.87 | 811 |
| Current smoking | Kentucky | −7.14 | −7.89 | −6.38 | 1,287 |
| Current smoking | Louisiana | −6.01 | −6.60 | −5.43 | 1,352 |
| Current smoking | Maine | −5.80 | −6.68 | −4.91 | 399 |
| Current smoking | Maryland | −4.84 | −5.75 | −3.92 | 1,449 |
| Current smoking | Massachusetts | −3.95 | −5.70 | −2.20 | 1,585 |
| Current smoking | Michigan | −5.85 | −6.69 | −5.01 | 2,869 |
| Current smoking | Minnesota | −4.56 | −5.34 | −3.78 | 1,497 |
| Current smoking | Mississippi | −5.77 | −7.25 | −4.29 | 865 |
| Current smoking | Missouri | −6.34 | −7.36 | −5.31 | 1,644 |
| Current smoking | Montana | −6.65 | −8.29 | −5.00 | 315 |
| Current smoking | Nebraska | −3.80 | −4.23 | −3.37 | 550 |
| Current smoking | Nevada | −4.54 | −5.64 | −3.44 | 767 |
| Current smoking | New Hampshire | −4.38 | −5.14 | −3.62 | 347 |
| Current smoking | New Jersey | −4.31 | −4.87 | −3.75 | 2,154 |
| Current smoking | New Mexico | −6.93 | −8.55 | −5.31 | 594 |
| Current smoking | New York | −4.70 | −5.23 | −4.17 | 5,182 |
| Current smoking | North Carolina | −5.40 | −6.02 | −4.78 | 2,628 |
| Current smoking | North Dakota | −4.04 | −6.23 | −1.86 | 227 |
| Current smoking | Ohio | −6.77 | −7.24 | −6.30 | 3,129 |
| Current smoking | Oklahoma | −6.30 | −7.23 | −5.36 | 1,189 |
| Current smoking | Oregon | −4.57 | −5.48 | −3.66 | 991 |
| Current smoking | Pennsylvania | −5.51 | −5.98 | −5.05 | 3,377 |
| Current smoking | Rhode Island | −4.53 | −5.11 | −3.94 | 246 |
| Current smoking | South Carolina | −5.61 | −6.44 | −4.78 | 1,301 |
| Current smoking | South Dakota | −7.73 | −10.72 | −4.74 | 242 |
| Current smoking | Tennessee | −6.64 | −7.92 | −5.36 | 1,675 |
| Current smoking | Texas | −4.35 | −4.98 | −3.73 | 6,802 |
| Current smoking | Utah | −1.76 | −2.66 | −0.86 | 707 |
| Current smoking | Vermont | −3.95 | −5.08 | −2.83 | 192 |
| Current smoking | Virginia | −4.66 | −5.25 | −4.07 | 2,152 |
| Current smoking | Washington | −3.93 | −4.54 | −3.32 | 1,767 |
| Current smoking | West Virginia | −5.86 | −7.73 | −3.99 | 543 |
| Current smoking | Wisconsin | −4.04 | −4.66 | −3.42 | 1,523 |
| Current smoking | Wyoming | −2.44 | −5.45 | 0.56 | 159 |
| Obesity | Alabama | −4.19 | −5.38 | −3.00 | 1,423 |
| Obesity | Alaska | −5.44 | −6.79 | −4.08 | 173 |
| Obesity | Arizona | −2.94 | −4.29 | −1.60 | 1,725 |
| Obesity | Arkansas | −4.27 | −5.48 | −3.06 | 818 |
| Obesity | California | −4.02 | −5.36 | −2.69 | 9,003 |
| Obesity | Colorado | −1.90 | −3.21 | −0.58 | 1,423 |
| Obesity | Connecticut | −5.18 | −7.75 | −2.61 | 870 |
| Obesity | Delaware | −3.57 | −4.88 | −2.26 | 256 |
| Obesity | District of Columbia | −1.46 | −2.58 | −0.33 | 201 |
| Obesity | Florida | −5.09 | −5.94 | −4.24 | 5,053 |
| Obesity | Georgia | −6.05 | −7.26 | −4.83 | 2,766 |
| Obesity | Hawaii | −3.12 | −3.40 | −2.84 | 419 |
| Obesity | Idaho | −3.29 | −4.95 | −1.62 | 453 |
| Obesity | Illinois | −4.31 | −5.85 | −2.77 | 3,239 |
| Obesity | Indiana | −3.79 | −5.61 | −1.96 | 1,678 |
| Obesity | Iowa | −3.37 | −4.61 | −2.12 | 890 |
| Obesity | Kansas | −4.54 | −5.89 | −3.19 | 811 |
| Obesity | Kentucky | −5.33 | −6.31 | −4.34 | 1,287 |
| Obesity | Louisiana | −5.19 | −6.09 | −4.30 | 1,352 |
| Obesity | Maine | −6.92 | −8.25 | −5.60 | 399 |
| Obesity | Maryland | −5.11 | −7.78 | −2.45 | 1,449 |
| Obesity | Massachusetts | −3.57 | −5.94 | −1.20 | 1,585 |
| Obesity | Michigan | −5.40 | −6.53 | −4.27 | 2,869 |
| Obesity | Minnesota | −5.36 | −6.53 | −4.18 | 1,497 |
| Obesity | Mississippi | −4.27 | −5.67 | −2.86 | 865 |
| Obesity | Missouri | −4.95 | −6.98 | −2.93 | 1,644 |
| Obesity | Montana | −5.67 | −8.49 | −2.85 | 315 |
| Obesity | Nebraska | −3.15 | −4.74 | −1.56 | 550 |
| Obesity | Nevada | −3.67 | −4.87 | −2.48 | 767 |
| Obesity | New Hampshire | −2.80 | −4.04 | −1.56 | 347 |
| Obesity | New Jersey | −5.19 | −6.17 | −4.22 | 2,154 |
| Obesity | New Mexico | −5.71 | −6.82 | −4.61 | 594 |
| Obesity | New York | −5.19 | −6.80 | −3.59 | 5,182 |
| Obesity | North Carolina | −4.68 | −5.96 | −3.40 | 2,628 |
| Obesity | North Dakota | −2.65 | −4.32 | −0.98 | 227 |
| Obesity | Ohio | −5.73 | −6.28 | −5.18 | 3,129 |
| Obesity | Oklahoma | −4.94 | −6.09 | −3.79 | 1,189 |
| Obesity | Oregon | −3.21 | −4.36 | −2.07 | 991 |
| Obesity | Pennsylvania | −4.76 | −5.47 | −4.05 | 3,377 |
| Obesity | Rhode Island | −3.64 | −5.39 | −1.90 | 246 |
| Obesity | South Carolina | −5.64 | −6.83 | −4.46 | 1,301 |
| Obesity | South Dakota | −4.30 | −5.52 | −3.08 | 242 |
| Obesity | Tennessee | −5.61 | −7.06 | −4.16 | 1,675 |
| Obesity | Texas | −3.87 | −4.48 | −3.25 | 6,802 |
| Obesity | Utah | −1.56 | −2.61 | −0.51 | 707 |
| Obesity | Vermont | −3.52 | −4.60 | −2.43 | 192 |
| Obesity | Virginia | −4.49 | −5.82 | −3.17 | 2,152 |
| Obesity | Washington | −5.22 | −7.57 | −2.88 | 1,767 |
| Obesity | West Virginia | −3.40 | −4.67 | −2.14 | 543 |
| Obesity | Wisconsin | −3.44 | −4.32 | −2.57 | 1,523 |
| Obesity | Wyoming | −3.13 | −7.58 | 1.33 | 159 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Alabama | −2.33 | −3.32 | −1.34 | 1,423 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Alaska | −2.87 | −3.89 | −1.84 | 173 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Arizona | −2.22 | −3.76 | −0.69 | 1,725 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Arkansas | −2.85 | −3.87 | −1.84 | 818 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | California | −1.35 | −1.71 | −0.98 | 9,003 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Colorado | −0.76 | −1.28 | −0.25 | 1,423 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Connecticut | −1.76 | −2.78 | −0.74 | 870 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Delaware | −0.86 | −2.34 | 0.62 | 256 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | District of Columbia | −0.39 | −0.92 | 0.13 | 201 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Florida | −2.46 | −3.01 | −1.90 | 5,053 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Georgia | −2.57 | −3.04 | −2.09 | 2,766 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Hawaii | −1.82 | −2.94 | −0.70 | 419 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Idaho | −1.23 | −2.01 | −0.46 | 453 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Illinois | −1.71 | −2.59 | −0.83 | 3,239 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Indiana | −1.57 | −2.43 | −0.72 | 1,678 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Iowa | −1.28 | −2.25 | −0.31 | 890 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Kansas | −1.75 | −2.43 | −1.07 | 811 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Kentucky | −3.07 | −3.50 | −2.63 | 1,287 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Louisiana | −3.08 | −3.65 | −2.51 | 1,352 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Maine | −2.38 | −2.91 | −1.86 | 399 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Maryland | −1.72 | −2.41 | −1.03 | 1,449 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Massachusetts | −1.43 | −2.19 | −0.66 | 1,585 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Michigan | −2.11 | −2.63 | −1.60 | 2,869 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Minnesota | −1.59 | −1.96 | −1.22 | 1,497 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Mississippi | −3.08 | −4.13 | −2.04 | 865 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Missouri | −2.30 | −2.85 | −1.76 | 1,644 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Montana | −2.87 | −3.85 | −1.90 | 315 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Nebraska | −0.99 | −1.47 | −0.52 | 550 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Nevada | −2.04 | −2.93 | −1.14 | 767 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | New Hampshire | −1.35 | −1.94 | −0.75 | 347 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | New Jersey | −1.46 | −1.94 | −0.99 | 2,154 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | New Mexico | −3.61 | −4.53 | −2.69 | 594 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | New York | −2.24 | −2.87 | −1.61 | 5,182 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | North Carolina | −2.41 | −2.95 | −1.87 | 2,628 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | North Dakota | −1.70 | −3.17 | −0.23 | 227 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Ohio | −2.58 | −2.99 | −2.18 | 3,129 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Oklahoma | −2.95 | −3.68 | −2.23 | 1,189 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Oregon | −1.38 | −2.13 | −0.62 | 991 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Pennsylvania | −1.91 | −2.22 | −1.59 | 3,377 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Rhode Island | −2.01 | −2.55 | −1.47 | 246 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | South Carolina | −2.82 | −3.47 | −2.18 | 1,301 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | South Dakota | −3.14 | −4.61 | −1.67 | 242 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Tennessee | −2.84 | −3.76 | −1.91 | 1,675 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Texas | −1.86 | −2.42 | −1.29 | 6,802 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Utah | −0.38 | −1.20 | 0.45 | 707 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Vermont | −1.09 | −1.61 | −0.57 | 192 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Virginia | −1.49 | −1.94 | −1.05 | 2,152 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Washington | −1.41 | −1.93 | −0.89 | 1,767 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | West Virginia | −2.40 | −3.84 | −0.95 | 543 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Wisconsin | −1.03 | −1.50 | −0.55 | 1,523 |
| Diagnosed diabetes | Wyoming | −1.02 | −2.99 | 0.94 | 159 |
| Frequent mental distress | Alabama | −4.47 | −4.82 | −4.12 | 1,423 |
| Frequent mental distress | Alaska | −4.04 | −5.03 | −3.04 | 173 |
| Frequent mental distress | Arizona | −4.21 | −5.30 | −3.11 | 1,725 |
| Frequent mental distress | Arkansas | −4.24 | −4.78 | −3.70 | 818 |
| Frequent mental distress | California | −3.34 | −3.76 | −2.93 | 9,003 |
| Frequent mental distress | Colorado | −3.44 | −4.15 | −2.73 | 1,423 |
| Frequent mental distress | Connecticut | −3.41 | −3.88 | −2.93 | 870 |
| Frequent mental distress | Delaware | −3.95 | −5.59 | −2.31 | 256 |
| Frequent mental distress | District of Columbia | −3.02 | −4.58 | −1.45 | 201 |
| Frequent mental distress | Florida | −3.51 | −3.82 | −3.20 | 5,053 |
| Frequent mental distress | Georgia | −4.03 | −4.25 | −3.80 | 2,766 |
| Frequent mental distress | Hawaii | −2.41 | −2.82 | −2.00 | 419 |
| Frequent mental distress | Idaho | −4.19 | −5.20 | −3.17 | 453 |
| Frequent mental distress | Illinois | −3.42 | −3.79 | −3.05 | 3,239 |
| Frequent mental distress | Indiana | −4.33 | −4.68 | −3.98 | 1,678 |
| Frequent mental distress | Iowa | −4.31 | −5.00 | −3.62 | 890 |
| Frequent mental distress | Kansas | −3.96 | −4.35 | −3.57 | 811 |
| Frequent mental distress | Kentucky | −4.11 | −4.41 | −3.80 | 1,287 |
| Frequent mental distress | Louisiana | −3.71 | −4.17 | −3.25 | 1,352 |
| Frequent mental distress | Maine | −3.60 | −4.13 | −3.07 | 399 |
| Frequent mental distress | Maryland | −3.93 | −4.17 | −3.69 | 1,449 |
| Frequent mental distress | Massachusetts | −3.54 | −3.83 | −3.26 | 1,585 |
| Frequent mental distress | Michigan | −4.30 | −4.59 | −4.00 | 2,869 |
| Frequent mental distress | Minnesota | −3.95 | −4.32 | −3.58 | 1,497 |
| Frequent mental distress | Mississippi | −3.82 | −4.30 | −3.34 | 865 |
| Frequent mental distress | Missouri | −4.22 | −4.65 | −3.79 | 1,644 |
| Frequent mental distress | Montana | −4.06 | −4.83 | −3.29 | 315 |
| Frequent mental distress | Nebraska | −3.52 | −3.99 | −3.06 | 550 |
| Frequent mental distress | Nevada | −2.82 | −3.21 | −2.42 | 767 |
| Frequent mental distress | New Hampshire | −3.46 | −4.09 | −2.83 | 347 |
| Frequent mental distress | New Jersey | −3.18 | −3.63 | −2.73 | 2,154 |
| Frequent mental distress | New Mexico | −4.02 | −4.70 | −3.34 | 594 |
| Frequent mental distress | New York | −2.93 | −3.35 | −2.50 | 5,182 |
| Frequent mental distress | North Carolina | −3.89 | −4.14 | −3.64 | 2,628 |
| Frequent mental distress | North Dakota | −3.91 | −4.69 | −3.13 | 227 |
| Frequent mental distress | Ohio | −4.71 | −4.99 | −4.43 | 3,129 |
| Frequent mental distress | Oklahoma | −4.33 | −4.60 | −4.06 | 1,189 |
| Frequent mental distress | Oregon | −4.19 | −4.87 | −3.50 | 991 |
| Frequent mental distress | Pennsylvania | −3.60 | −3.82 | −3.38 | 3,377 |
| Frequent mental distress | Rhode Island | −2.93 | −3.65 | −2.22 | 246 |
| Frequent mental distress | South Carolina | −3.80 | −4.32 | −3.28 | 1,301 |
| Frequent mental distress | South Dakota | −4.69 | −5.57 | −3.81 | 242 |
| Frequent mental distress | Tennessee | −4.32 | −4.50 | −4.14 | 1,675 |
| Frequent mental distress | Texas | −3.83 | −4.11 | −3.55 | 6,802 |
| Frequent mental distress | Utah | −3.80 | −5.22 | −2.38 | 707 |
| Frequent mental distress | Vermont | −4.37 | −5.55 | −3.19 | 192 |
| Frequent mental distress | Virginia | −3.86 | −4.08 | −3.63 | 2,152 |
| Frequent mental distress | Washington | −4.30 | −4.64 | −3.96 | 1,767 |
| Frequent mental distress | West Virginia | −4.42 | −5.08 | −3.77 | 543 |
| Frequent mental distress | Wisconsin | −4.26 | −4.76 | −3.76 | 1,523 |
| Frequent mental distress | Wyoming | −3.49 | −4.43 | −2.55 | 159 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Alabama | −8.26 | −9.49 | −7.02 | 1,423 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Alaska | −7.43 | −9.28 | −5.57 | 173 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Arizona | −6.01 | −7.81 | −4.22 | 1,725 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Arkansas | −9.36 | −10.76 | −7.97 | 818 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | California | −5.16 | −5.83 | −4.48 | 9,003 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Colorado | −3.81 | −4.54 | −3.07 | 1,423 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Connecticut | −5.60 | −6.98 | −4.22 | 870 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Delaware | −6.14 | −7.34 | −4.95 | 256 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | District of Columbia | −3.05 | −3.82 | −2.27 | 201 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Florida | −7.40 | −8.10 | −6.70 | 5,053 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Georgia | −8.61 | −9.48 | −7.73 | 2,766 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Hawaii | −4.83 | −7.09 | −2.57 | 419 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Idaho | −6.49 | −7.48 | −5.50 | 453 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Illinois | −6.54 | −7.55 | −5.53 | 3,239 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Indiana | −7.30 | −8.70 | −5.91 | 1,678 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Iowa | −7.56 | −8.65 | −6.46 | 890 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Kansas | −6.53 | −7.42 | −5.63 | 811 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Kentucky | −9.02 | −9.63 | −8.41 | 1,287 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Louisiana | −8.32 | −9.14 | −7.50 | 1,352 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Maine | −8.03 | −9.35 | −6.70 | 399 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Maryland | −6.69 | −7.77 | −5.62 | 1,449 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Massachusetts | −5.93 | −7.56 | −4.29 | 1,585 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Michigan | −7.22 | −8.06 | −6.37 | 2,869 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Minnesota | −6.25 | −6.85 | −5.65 | 1,497 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Mississippi | −8.38 | −10.04 | −6.72 | 865 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Missouri | −8.13 | −8.97 | −7.29 | 1,644 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Montana | −8.17 | −9.75 | −6.58 | 315 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Nebraska | −5.56 | −6.21 | −4.91 | 550 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Nevada | −5.65 | −7.08 | −4.22 | 767 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | New Hampshire | −5.29 | −6.12 | −4.46 | 347 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | New Jersey | −5.76 | −6.59 | −4.92 | 2,154 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | New Mexico | −7.85 | −9.10 | −6.59 | 594 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | New York | −6.95 | −8.08 | −5.82 | 5,182 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | North Carolina | −7.53 | −8.25 | −6.82 | 2,628 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | North Dakota | −6.37 | −8.10 | −4.63 | 227 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Ohio | −8.44 | −8.88 | −8.00 | 3,129 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Oklahoma | −9.23 | −10.46 | −7.99 | 1,189 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Oregon | −5.06 | −5.98 | −4.14 | 991 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Pennsylvania | −6.93 | −7.46 | −6.40 | 3,377 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Rhode Island | −5.88 | −6.26 | −5.50 | 246 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | South Carolina | −8.46 | −9.27 | −7.64 | 1,301 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | South Dakota | −7.28 | −9.25 | −5.30 | 242 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Tennessee | −8.52 | −9.83 | −7.21 | 1,675 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Texas | −6.93 | −7.78 | −6.07 | 6,802 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Utah | −3.44 | −4.31 | −2.56 | 707 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Vermont | −5.43 | −6.39 | −4.47 | 192 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Virginia | −5.79 | −6.42 | −5.16 | 2,152 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Washington | −5.31 | −6.22 | −4.40 | 1,767 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | West Virginia | −8.03 | −9.68 | −6.37 | 543 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Wisconsin | −6.16 | −6.64 | −5.68 | 1,523 |
| No leisure-time physical activity | Wyoming | −4.84 | −8.10 | −1.57 | 159 |
| Binge drinking | Alabama | 1.26 | 0.97 | 1.54 | 1,423 |
| Binge drinking | Alaska | 1.02 | 0.43 | 1.61 | 173 |
| Binge drinking | Arizona | 0.91 | 0.37 | 1.44 | 1,725 |
| Binge drinking | Arkansas | 1.97 | 1.23 | 2.71 | 818 |
| Binge drinking | California | 0.66 | −0.07 | 1.40 | 9,003 |
| Binge drinking | Colorado | 0.65 | −0.18 | 1.47 | 1,423 |
| Binge drinking | Connecticut | 0.15 | −0.40 | 0.70 | 870 |
| Binge drinking | Delaware | 0.95 | 0.63 | 1.28 | 256 |
| Binge drinking | District of Columbia | 0.92 | 0.13 | 1.70 | 201 |
| Binge drinking | Florida | 1.18 | 0.86 | 1.49 | 5,053 |
| Binge drinking | Georgia | 1.35 | 0.96 | 1.75 | 2,766 |
| Binge drinking | Hawaii | 0.97 | 0.41 | 1.53 | 419 |
| Binge drinking | Idaho | 1.16 | 0.71 | 1.61 | 453 |
| Binge drinking | Illinois | 1.54 | 0.70 | 2.38 | 3,239 |
| Binge drinking | Indiana | 1.20 | 0.61 | 1.79 | 1,678 |
| Binge drinking | Iowa | 1.49 | 1.23 | 1.76 | 890 |
| Binge drinking | Kansas | 0.65 | 0.22 | 1.07 | 811 |
| Binge drinking | Kentucky | 1.99 | 1.73 | 2.24 | 1,287 |
| Binge drinking | Louisiana | 2.33 | 1.81 | 2.84 | 1,352 |
| Binge drinking | Maine | 1.74 | 0.89 | 2.59 | 399 |
| Binge drinking | Maryland | −0.77 | −1.71 | 0.17 | 1,449 |
| Binge drinking | Massachusetts | 0.51 | −0.26 | 1.27 | 1,585 |
| Binge drinking | Michigan | 1.12 | 0.41 | 1.84 | 2,869 |
| Binge drinking | Minnesota | 0.63 | −0.05 | 1.32 | 1,497 |
| Binge drinking | Mississippi | 1.41 | 0.90 | 1.92 | 865 |
| Binge drinking | Missouri | 1.88 | 1.42 | 2.34 | 1,644 |
| Binge drinking | Montana | 2.18 | 1.44 | 2.93 | 315 |
| Binge drinking | Nebraska | 0.91 | 0.58 | 1.23 | 550 |
| Binge drinking | Nevada | 0.89 | 0.19 | 1.59 | 767 |
| Binge drinking | New Hampshire | 1.12 | 0.05 | 2.20 | 347 |
| Binge drinking | New Jersey | 0.36 | −0.19 | 0.90 | 2,154 |
| Binge drinking | New Mexico | 1.59 | 1.17 | 2.02 | 594 |
| Binge drinking | New York | 1.37 | 0.26 | 2.48 | 5,182 |
| Binge drinking | North Carolina | 1.57 | 0.96 | 2.18 | 2,628 |
| Binge drinking | North Dakota | 1.94 | 1.42 | 2.46 | 227 |
| Binge drinking | Ohio | 1.67 | 1.25 | 2.09 | 3,129 |
| Binge drinking | Oklahoma | 1.68 | 0.95 | 2.41 | 1,189 |
| Binge drinking | Oregon | 1.01 | 0.59 | 1.43 | 991 |
| Binge drinking | Pennsylvania | 1.16 | 0.68 | 1.63 | 3,377 |
| Binge drinking | Rhode Island | 1.13 | 0.64 | 1.62 | 246 |
| Binge drinking | South Carolina | 2.25 | 1.24 | 3.26 | 1,301 |
| Binge drinking | South Dakota | 1.32 | 0.46 | 2.18 | 242 |
| Binge drinking | Tennessee | 1.99 | 1.39 | 2.60 | 1,675 |
| Binge drinking | Texas | 0.89 | 0.49 | 1.28 | 6,802 |
| Binge drinking | Utah | 1.44 | 0.99 | 1.89 | 707 |
| Binge drinking | Vermont | 1.21 | 0.28 | 2.15 | 192 |
| Binge drinking | Virginia | 0.04 | −0.72 | 0.79 | 2,152 |
| Binge drinking | Washington | 0.37 | −0.17 | 0.92 | 1,767 |
| Binge drinking | West Virginia | 1.62 | 1.11 | 2.14 | 543 |
| Binge drinking | Wisconsin | 1.43 | 0.91 | 1.95 | 1,523 |
| Binge drinking | Wyoming | 0.82 | −0.66 | 2.30 | 159 |

Note: Each dot is a regression across the tracts of one state, and every state has at least 60 tracts with all the variables. The intervals use counties as clusters; Delaware and the District of Columbia use HC3 errors because they have too few counties for cluster-robust errors. The strip medians are printed on the chart.

Note: PLACES values are modeled estimates. They are built from BRFSS survey responses with census and American Community Survey inputs (county poverty, the age, sex, race and ethnicity of each tract's residents, and education), with state and county random effects, and the Area Deprivation Index is built from American Community Survey data too, so part of each gradient here is mechanical. Within a county, tract values differ through the demographic composition of tracts. Income comes from the same survey, and the controls remove only the age, Black and Hispanic shares. Race-alone shares include Hispanic residents, and median household income is top-coded in the survey.

Note: These are differences between tracts within a state. They do not describe what any person does.

Source: CDC PLACES 2024 release (BRFSS 2022) and ACS 2019-2023; modeled estimates, population-weighted (adults in each tract)

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/coefficient_zoo.json

### Table 3. From the least to the most deprived tenth of tracts, the dental visit rate falls from 70.3% to 45.8% while the annual checkup rate rises from 74.2% to 77.8%

Adults who visited a dentist or had a routine checkup in the past year, percent, by Area Deprivation Index national percentile of the tract, 2022

| conf_high | conf_low | estimate | measure | n_units | percentile |
| ---: | ---: | ---: | --- | ---: | ---: |
| 76.10 | 73 | 74.40 | Annual checkup | 693 | 1 |
| 75.42 | 71.84 | 73.47 | Annual checkup | 779 | 2 |
| 75.32 | 72.22 | 73.62 | Annual checkup | 587 | 3 |
| 75.30 | 72.99 | 74.01 | Annual checkup | 925 | 4 |
| 75.49 | 73.33 | 74.33 | Annual checkup | 636 | 5 |
| 75.67 | 73.40 | 74.46 | Annual checkup | 979 | 6 |
| 75.45 | 73.35 | 74.30 | Annual checkup | 607 | 7 |
| 75.31 | 73.27 | 74.18 | Annual checkup | 915 | 8 |
| 75.30 | 73.30 | 74.22 | Annual checkup | 677 | 9 |
| 75.64 | 73.39 | 74.42 | Annual checkup | 1,000 | 10 |
| 75.45 | 73.49 | 74.38 | Annual checkup | 598 | 11 |
| 75.94 | 73.39 | 74.58 | Annual checkup | 1,019 | 12 |
| 75.39 | 72.90 | 74.03 | Annual checkup | 693 | 13 |
| 75.74 | 73.59 | 74.63 | Annual checkup | 1,007 | 14 |
| 75.36 | 72.98 | 74.08 | Annual checkup | 656 | 15 |
| 75.32 | 73.07 | 74.13 | Annual checkup | 1,054 | 16 |
| 75.65 | 72.97 | 74.29 | Annual checkup | 684 | 17 |
| 75.20 | 73.14 | 74.12 | Annual checkup | 1,033 | 18 |
| 74.96 | 72.70 | 73.80 | Annual checkup | 702 | 19 |
| 75.70 | 73.47 | 74.58 | Annual checkup | 1,019 | 20 |
| 75.18 | 73.25 | 74.18 | Annual checkup | 655 | 21 |
| 75.39 | 73.71 | 74.55 | Annual checkup | 1,098 | 22 |
| 75.52 | 73.77 | 74.64 | Annual checkup | 652 | 23 |
| 75.17 | 73.45 | 74.31 | Annual checkup | 1,050 | 24 |
| 75.28 | 73.86 | 74.56 | Annual checkup | 679 | 25 |
| 75.39 | 74.06 | 74.72 | Annual checkup | 1,028 | 26 |
| 75.60 | 73.91 | 74.77 | Annual checkup | 678 | 27 |
| 75.54 | 74.17 | 74.86 | Annual checkup | 1,029 | 28 |
| 75.67 | 74.13 | 74.90 | Annual checkup | 659 | 29 |
| 75.64 | 74.31 | 74.98 | Annual checkup | 1,112 | 30 |
| 75.35 | 73.93 | 74.62 | Annual checkup | 668 | 31 |
| 75.39 | 74.19 | 74.79 | Annual checkup | 1,010 | 32 |
| 75.39 | 74.01 | 74.70 | Annual checkup | 689 | 33 |
| 75.41 | 74.28 | 74.84 | Annual checkup | 1,053 | 34 |
| 75.74 | 74.51 | 75.13 | Annual checkup | 672 | 35 |
| 75.51 | 74.30 | 74.88 | Annual checkup | 1,098 | 36 |
| 75.33 | 74.10 | 74.71 | Annual checkup | 730 | 37 |
| 75.58 | 74.42 | 75.01 | Annual checkup | 1,031 | 38 |
| 76.08 | 74.90 | 75.48 | Annual checkup | 620 | 39 |
| 75.63 | 74.54 | 75.08 | Annual checkup | 995 | 40 |
| 75.69 | 74.46 | 75.08 | Annual checkup | 709 | 41 |
| 75.70 | 74.73 | 75.22 | Annual checkup | 1,045 | 42 |
| 75.85 | 74.69 | 75.25 | Annual checkup | 690 | 43 |
| 75.92 | 74.82 | 75.38 | Annual checkup | 1,044 | 44 |
| 76.03 | 75.03 | 75.53 | Annual checkup | 689 | 45 |
| 76.22 | 75.30 | 75.74 | Annual checkup | 1,008 | 46 |
| 76.33 | 75.20 | 75.74 | Annual checkup | 655 | 47 |
| 75.99 | 75 | 75.50 | Annual checkup | 1,070 | 48 |
| 76.34 | 75.26 | 75.80 | Annual checkup | 652 | 49 |
| 75.98 | 75.02 | 75.48 | Annual checkup | 1,066 | 50 |
| 76.16 | 75.04 | 75.58 | Annual checkup | 667 | 51 |
| 76.44 | 75.51 | 75.98 | Annual checkup | 1,106 | 52 |
| 76.19 | 75.32 | 75.75 | Annual checkup | 721 | 53 |
| 76.28 | 75.26 | 75.75 | Annual checkup | 1,047 | 54 |
| 76.55 | 75.55 | 76.04 | Annual checkup | 670 | 55 |
| 76.34 | 75.42 | 75.87 | Annual checkup | 1,069 | 56 |
| 76.32 | 75.32 | 75.82 | Annual checkup | 664 | 57 |
| 76.63 | 75.65 | 76.15 | Annual checkup | 1,046 | 58 |
| 76.44 | 75.45 | 75.94 | Annual checkup | 756 | 59 |
| 76.47 | 75.54 | 75.98 | Annual checkup | 1,056 | 60 |
| 76.50 | 75.52 | 76 | Annual checkup | 672 | 61 |
| 76.44 | 75.45 | 75.96 | Annual checkup | 1,107 | 62 |
| 76.55 | 75.51 | 76.01 | Annual checkup | 679 | 63 |
| 76.69 | 75.70 | 76.21 | Annual checkup | 1,061 | 64 |
| 76.72 | 75.49 | 76.14 | Annual checkup | 699 | 65 |
| 76.91 | 76.02 | 76.48 | Annual checkup | 1,041 | 66 |
| 76.96 | 76 | 76.49 | Annual checkup | 696 | 67 |
| 77 | 76.17 | 76.60 | Annual checkup | 1,028 | 68 |
| 76.97 | 76.14 | 76.55 | Annual checkup | 679 | 69 |
| 76.83 | 76.08 | 76.46 | Annual checkup | 1,030 | 70 |
| 77.05 | 76.15 | 76.62 | Annual checkup | 711 | 71 |
| 77.10 | 76.28 | 76.70 | Annual checkup | 1,040 | 72 |
| 76.94 | 76.02 | 76.48 | Annual checkup | 678 | 73 |
| 76.97 | 76.17 | 76.59 | Annual checkup | 1,061 | 74 |
| 77.10 | 76.06 | 76.60 | Annual checkup | 721 | 75 |
| 77.14 | 76.28 | 76.72 | Annual checkup | 1,001 | 76 |
| 77.34 | 76.36 | 76.87 | Annual checkup | 666 | 77 |
| 77.25 | 76.42 | 76.83 | Annual checkup | 1,025 | 78 |
| 77.42 | 76.64 | 77.05 | Annual checkup | 698 | 79 |
| 77.40 | 76.62 | 77.01 | Annual checkup | 1,024 | 80 |
| 77.44 | 76.56 | 77.01 | Annual checkup | 663 | 81 |
| 77.47 | 76.73 | 77.10 | Annual checkup | 983 | 82 |
| 77.57 | 76.70 | 77.14 | Annual checkup | 657 | 83 |
| 77.59 | 76.84 | 77.23 | Annual checkup | 906 | 84 |
| 77.60 | 76.68 | 77.12 | Annual checkup | 629 | 85 |
| 77.55 | 76.65 | 77.12 | Annual checkup | 984 | 86 |
| 77.54 | 76.69 | 77.11 | Annual checkup | 619 | 87 |
| 77.85 | 77.17 | 77.51 | Annual checkup | 911 | 88 |
| 77.71 | 76.73 | 77.22 | Annual checkup | 648 | 89 |
| 77.84 | 76.96 | 77.40 | Annual checkup | 941 | 90 |
| 78.03 | 77.07 | 77.55 | Annual checkup | 578 | 91 |
| 78.03 | 77.10 | 77.57 | Annual checkup | 878 | 92 |
| 77.95 | 77.04 | 77.49 | Annual checkup | 589 | 93 |
| 77.98 | 76.88 | 77.43 | Annual checkup | 794 | 94 |
| 78.49 | 77.38 | 77.94 | Annual checkup | 532 | 95 |
| 78.56 | 77.55 | 78.05 | Annual checkup | 761 | 96 |
| 78.69 | 77.23 | 77.94 | Annual checkup | 536 | 97 |
| 78.79 | 77.53 | 78.16 | Annual checkup | 725 | 98 |
| 79.20 | 77.82 | 78.56 | Annual checkup | 549 | 99 |
| 79.66 | 77.53 | 78.70 | Annual checkup | 682 | 100 |
| 75.95 | 73.21 | 74.77 | Dental visit | 693 | 1 |
| 74.95 | 71.66 | 73.03 | Dental visit | 779 | 2 |
| 74.03 | 69.83 | 71.73 | Dental visit | 587 | 3 |
| 73.10 | 69.50 | 71.27 | Dental visit | 925 | 4 |
| 72.41 | 67.16 | 69.78 | Dental visit | 636 | 5 |
| 71.85 | 66.40 | 69.10 | Dental visit | 979 | 6 |
| 72.28 | 68.03 | 69.95 | Dental visit | 607 | 7 |
| 71.49 | 67.30 | 69.14 | Dental visit | 915 | 8 |
| 70.93 | 66.28 | 68.51 | Dental visit | 677 | 9 |
| 71.20 | 65.54 | 68.13 | Dental visit | 1,000 | 10 |
| 70.92 | 66.74 | 68.66 | Dental visit | 598 | 11 |
| 71.10 | 65.61 | 68.31 | Dental visit | 1,019 | 12 |
| 70.67 | 64.96 | 67.82 | Dental visit | 693 | 13 |
| 69.96 | 65.82 | 67.76 | Dental visit | 1,007 | 14 |
| 69.56 | 65.06 | 67.17 | Dental visit | 656 | 15 |
| 68.75 | 64.39 | 66.47 | Dental visit | 1,054 | 16 |
| 69.25 | 63.74 | 66.50 | Dental visit | 684 | 17 |
| 68.72 | 64.09 | 66.41 | Dental visit | 1,033 | 18 |
| 68.01 | 62.54 | 65.35 | Dental visit | 702 | 19 |
| 68.93 | 63.42 | 66.35 | Dental visit | 1,019 | 20 |
| 68.80 | 64.71 | 66.89 | Dental visit | 655 | 21 |
| 68.55 | 64.87 | 66.88 | Dental visit | 1,098 | 22 |
| 68.13 | 64.36 | 66.42 | Dental visit | 652 | 23 |
| 68.45 | 64.67 | 66.80 | Dental visit | 1,050 | 24 |
| 68.55 | 65.97 | 67.31 | Dental visit | 679 | 25 |
| 67.72 | 65.33 | 66.54 | Dental visit | 1,028 | 26 |
| 68.37 | 64.46 | 66.58 | Dental visit | 678 | 27 |
| 67.19 | 64.49 | 65.94 | Dental visit | 1,029 | 28 |
| 67.13 | 63.11 | 65.31 | Dental visit | 659 | 29 |
| 66.91 | 63.97 | 65.49 | Dental visit | 1,112 | 30 |
| 67.01 | 64.12 | 65.58 | Dental visit | 668 | 31 |
| 66.85 | 64.91 | 65.87 | Dental visit | 1,010 | 32 |
| 66.15 | 64.07 | 65.12 | Dental visit | 689 | 33 |
| 66.43 | 64.52 | 65.46 | Dental visit | 1,053 | 34 |
| 66.47 | 64.56 | 65.50 | Dental visit | 672 | 35 |
| 65.61 | 63.65 | 64.60 | Dental visit | 1,098 | 36 |
| 65.35 | 63.25 | 64.33 | Dental visit | 730 | 37 |
| 65.20 | 63.21 | 64.22 | Dental visit | 1,031 | 38 |
| 65.94 | 63.57 | 64.81 | Dental visit | 620 | 39 |
| 65.01 | 62.95 | 63.98 | Dental visit | 995 | 40 |
| 64.49 | 62.47 | 63.45 | Dental visit | 709 | 41 |
| 64.73 | 62.72 | 63.73 | Dental visit | 1,045 | 42 |
| 64.07 | 62.06 | 63.06 | Dental visit | 690 | 43 |
| 64.47 | 62.63 | 63.54 | Dental visit | 1,044 | 44 |
| 63.79 | 61.68 | 62.72 | Dental visit | 689 | 45 |
| 64.37 | 61.92 | 63.18 | Dental visit | 1,008 | 46 |
| 64.27 | 62.43 | 63.32 | Dental visit | 655 | 47 |
| 63.22 | 61.36 | 62.31 | Dental visit | 1,070 | 48 |
| 63.60 | 61.77 | 62.69 | Dental visit | 652 | 49 |
| 62.95 | 61.06 | 61.98 | Dental visit | 1,066 | 50 |
| 63.09 | 61.02 | 62.02 | Dental visit | 667 | 51 |
| 62.68 | 60.73 | 61.70 | Dental visit | 1,106 | 52 |
| 62.23 | 60.18 | 61.18 | Dental visit | 721 | 53 |
| 61.92 | 59.70 | 60.81 | Dental visit | 1,047 | 54 |
| 61.91 | 59.65 | 60.80 | Dental visit | 670 | 55 |
| 61.76 | 59.66 | 60.68 | Dental visit | 1,069 | 56 |
| 61.68 | 59.81 | 60.75 | Dental visit | 664 | 57 |
| 61.60 | 59.55 | 60.60 | Dental visit | 1,046 | 58 |
| 60.95 | 58.48 | 59.74 | Dental visit | 756 | 59 |
| 60.71 | 58.91 | 59.80 | Dental visit | 1,056 | 60 |
| 60.96 | 58.76 | 59.82 | Dental visit | 672 | 61 |
| 59.68 | 57.43 | 58.55 | Dental visit | 1,107 | 62 |
| 60.09 | 57.55 | 58.83 | Dental visit | 679 | 63 |
| 59.80 | 57.28 | 58.60 | Dental visit | 1,061 | 64 |
| 59.44 | 56.75 | 58.17 | Dental visit | 699 | 65 |
| 60.07 | 57.81 | 59.01 | Dental visit | 1,041 | 66 |
| 59.18 | 56.90 | 58.09 | Dental visit | 696 | 67 |
| 58.98 | 57.04 | 57.99 | Dental visit | 1,028 | 68 |
| 59.27 | 57.22 | 58.28 | Dental visit | 679 | 69 |
| 58.04 | 56.06 | 57.05 | Dental visit | 1,030 | 70 |
| 58.22 | 55.94 | 57.06 | Dental visit | 711 | 71 |
| 58.05 | 55.98 | 56.99 | Dental visit | 1,040 | 72 |
| 57.70 | 55.43 | 56.57 | Dental visit | 678 | 73 |
| 56.97 | 55.23 | 56.10 | Dental visit | 1,061 | 74 |
| 57.37 | 55.13 | 56.25 | Dental visit | 721 | 75 |
| 56.19 | 54.20 | 55.22 | Dental visit | 1,001 | 76 |
| 56.62 | 54.18 | 55.43 | Dental visit | 666 | 77 |
| 55.97 | 54.23 | 55.16 | Dental visit | 1,025 | 78 |
| 56.19 | 54.31 | 55.21 | Dental visit | 698 | 79 |
| 56.09 | 54.19 | 55.15 | Dental visit | 1,024 | 80 |
| 55.11 | 52.96 | 54.09 | Dental visit | 663 | 81 |
| 54.97 | 53.06 | 54.04 | Dental visit | 983 | 82 |
| 53.68 | 51.27 | 52.51 | Dental visit | 657 | 83 |
| 54 | 52.03 | 53.06 | Dental visit | 906 | 84 |
| 53.16 | 50.52 | 51.88 | Dental visit | 629 | 85 |
| 52.58 | 50.51 | 51.60 | Dental visit | 984 | 86 |
| 52.83 | 50.87 | 51.82 | Dental visit | 619 | 87 |
| 51.78 | 49.96 | 50.88 | Dental visit | 911 | 88 |
| 50.53 | 48.08 | 49.35 | Dental visit | 648 | 89 |
| 51.08 | 49.04 | 50.09 | Dental visit | 941 | 90 |
| 50.20 | 47.56 | 48.95 | Dental visit | 578 | 91 |
| 49.48 | 47.27 | 48.38 | Dental visit | 878 | 92 |
| 48.71 | 46.46 | 47.55 | Dental visit | 589 | 93 |
| 46.61 | 44.20 | 45.45 | Dental visit | 794 | 94 |
| 46.74 | 44.23 | 45.52 | Dental visit | 532 | 95 |
| 45.02 | 42.81 | 43.95 | Dental visit | 761 | 96 |
| 44.18 | 41.51 | 42.78 | Dental visit | 536 | 97 |
| 42.57 | 38.99 | 40.94 | Dental visit | 725 | 98 |
| 42.64 | 39.48 | 41.10 | Dental visit | 549 | 99 |
| 40.76 | 37.25 | 39.14 | Dental visit | 682 | 100 |

Note: PLACES values are modeled estimates. They are built from BRFSS survey responses with census and American Community Survey inputs (county poverty, the age, sex, race and ethnicity of each tract's residents, and education), with state and county random effects, and the Area Deprivation Index is built from American Community Survey data too, so part of each gradient here is mechanical. Within a county, tract values differ through the demographic composition of tracts. The tract file has no intervals; the bands are 95% intervals for the weighted mean from a bootstrap over counties (replicates and seed in the methods note).

Note: PLACES 2024 release: BRFSS 2022 for most measures and BRFSS 2021 for blood pressure, blood pressure medicine, high cholesterol and cholesterol screening. Values are crude prevalence among adults, not age-adjusted, so differences in age structure move them.

Source: CDC PLACES 2024 release (BRFSS 2022) and Area Deprivation Index 2023; modeled estimates, population-weighted (adults in each tract)

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/checkup_vs_dental.json

### Table 4. In the most deprived tenth of tracts, the dental visit and screening tests are less common by 6.2 to 24.4 points and barriers to care are more common by 9.7 and 11.1 points

Difference in the share of adults, most deprived tenth of tracts minus least deprived tenth, percentage points, eight measures of care, 2021 and 2022

| Measure | Group | Least deprived tenth (%) | Most deprived tenth (%) | Difference (points) | Lower limit of the 95% interval | Upper limit of the 95% interval | Tracts in the most deprived tenth |
| --- | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
| Annual checkup | Checkup and treatment | 74.2 | 77.8 | 3.6 | 2.4 | 4.6 | 8,213 |
| Blood pressure medicine, adults with high blood pressure | Checkup and treatment | 73.6 | 79.5 | 5.9 | 4.8 | 6.7 | 7,946 |
| Dental visit | Dental visit and screening | 70.3 | 45.8 | −24.4 | −26.5 | −22.5 | 8,213 |
| Mammography, women ages 50 to 74 | Dental visit and screening | 78.8 | 71.7 | −7.0 | −7.8 | −6.3 | 8,213 |
| Cholesterol screening | Dental visit and screening | 87.9 | 81.0 | −6.9 | −7.5 | −6.3 | 7,946 |
| Colorectal cancer screening, ages 45 to 75 | Dental visit and screening | 65.3 | 59.1 | −6.2 | −8.3 | −4.4 | 8,213 |
| No reliable transportation | Barriers | 6.1 | 15.9 | 9.7 | 9.0 | 10.6 | 6,348 |
| No health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | Barriers | 6.3 | 17.4 | 11.1 | 9.7 | 12.8 | 8,213 |

Note: Blood pressure medicine is the share of adults with high blood pressure who take medicine for it, and blood pressure medicine and cholesterol screening are BRFSS 2021 estimates; the other measures are BRFSS 2022. The transportation question was asked in only some states, so that row covers fewer tracts. The grouping into checkup and treatment, dental visit and screening, and barriers is this book's: PLACES files the checkup, blood pressure medicine, the dental visit and insurance together under prevention. Some measures cover only some ages (insurance, mammography, colorectal screening), and tract means weight each tract by all its adults.

Note: PLACES values are modeled estimates. They are built from BRFSS survey responses with census and American Community Survey inputs (county poverty, the age, sex, race and ethnicity of each tract's residents, and education), with state and county random effects, and the Area Deprivation Index is built from American Community Survey data too, so part of each gradient here is mechanical. Within a county, tract values differ through the demographic composition of tracts. The tract file has no intervals; the bands are 95% intervals for the weighted mean from a bootstrap over counties (replicates and seed in the methods note).

Source: CDC PLACES 2024 release (BRFSS 2021 and 2022) and Area Deprivation Index 2023; modeled estimates, population-weighted (adults in each tract)

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/care_ledger.json

### Table 5. The checkup slope is within 0.5 points of zero in all four specifications, and the dental slope is between −2.37 and −3.86 points

Slope of tract prevalence on the Area Deprivation Index national percentile, points of prevalence per ten percentiles, adults, four specifications, 2022

| conf_high | conf_low | estimate | measure | n | specification |
| ---: | ---: | ---: | --- | ---: | --- |
| 0.541 | 0.287 | 0.414 | Annual checkup | 82,779 | All tracts |
| −2.08 | −2.67 | −2.37 | Dental visit | 82,779 | All tracts |
| 0.054 | −0.080 | −0.013 | Annual checkup | 82,779 | Within states |
| −2.81 | −3.14 | −2.97 | Dental visit | 82,779 | Within states |
| −0.190 | −0.348 | −0.269 | Annual checkup | 82,779 | Within counties |
| −3.73 | −3.99 | −3.86 | Dental visit | 82,779 | Within counties |
| 0.006 | −0.100 | −0.047 | Annual checkup | 82,779 | Within states, with age and race controls |
| −2.24 | −2.51 | −2.38 | Dental visit | 82,779 | Within states, with age and race controls |

Note: Within states and within counties, the comparison is between tracts of one state or county, with a separate baseline for each. The last row also holds constant the tract shares of residents who are ages 65 and over, Black alone and Hispanic. The standard error treats the tracts of a county as one cluster.

Note: PLACES values are modeled estimates. They are built from BRFSS survey responses with census and American Community Survey inputs (county poverty, the age, sex, race and ethnicity of each tract's residents, and education), with state and county random effects, and the Area Deprivation Index is built from American Community Survey data too, so part of each gradient here is mechanical. Within a county, tract values differ through the demographic composition of tracts. The tract file has no intervals; the bands are 95% intervals for the weighted mean from a bootstrap over counties (replicates and seed in the methods note).

Source: CDC PLACES 2024 release (BRFSS 2022) and Area Deprivation Index 2023; modeled estimates, population-weighted (adults in each tract)

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/checkup_specifications.json

### Table 6. The dental visit rate falls with deprivation in all 51 states, and the checkup slope is within 0.5 points of zero in 42

Slope of tract prevalence on the Area Deprivation Index national percentile within each state, points of prevalence per ten percentiles, adults, 2022

| conf_high | conf_low | estimate | measure | n | state |
| ---: | ---: | ---: | --- | ---: | --- |
| 0.287 | −0.038 | 0.124 | Annual checkup | 1,421 | AL |
| −3.48 | −4.00 | −3.74 | Dental visit | 1,421 | AL |
| −0.261 | −0.862 | −0.561 | Annual checkup | 172 | AK |
| −3.07 | −4.31 | −3.69 | Dental visit | 172 | AK |
| −0.227 | −0.620 | −0.423 | Annual checkup | 1,723 | AZ |
| −3.07 | −3.86 | −3.46 | Dental visit | 1,723 | AZ |
| 0.808 | 0.004 | 0.406 | Annual checkup | 818 | AR |
| −3.02 | −4.22 | −3.62 | Dental visit | 818 | AR |
| −0.276 | −0.857 | −0.566 | Annual checkup | 8,982 | CA |
| −3.36 | −4.11 | −3.74 | Dental visit | 8,982 | CA |
| 0.182 | −0.677 | −0.248 | Annual checkup | 1,420 | CO |
| −2.96 | −3.81 | −3.38 | Dental visit | 1,420 | CO |
| −0.135 | −0.604 | −0.369 | Annual checkup | 872 | CT |
| −2.67 | −4.46 | −3.57 | Dental visit | 872 | CT |
| −0.197 | −0.605 | −0.401 | Annual checkup | 253 | DE |
| −3.36 | −4.10 | −3.73 | Dental visit | 253 | DE |
| 2.11 | 1.32 | 1.71 | Annual checkup | 201 | DC |
| −5.57 | −7.38 | −6.47 | Dental visit | 201 | DC |
| 0.188 | −0.244 | −0.028 | Annual checkup | 5,034 | FL |
| −2.59 | −3.24 | −2.92 | Dental visit | 5,034 | FL |
| 0.604 | 0.140 | 0.372 | Annual checkup | 2,767 | GA |
| −3.09 | −3.42 | −3.26 | Dental visit | 2,767 | GA |
| −0.061 | −0.477 | −0.269 | Annual checkup | 414 | HI |
| −2.46 | −3.31 | −2.88 | Dental visit | 414 | HI |
| −0.009 | −1.13 | −0.567 | Annual checkup | 453 | ID |
| −1.34 | −3.51 | −2.43 | Dental visit | 453 | ID |
| 0.631 | −0.232 | 0.199 | Annual checkup | 3,239 | IL |
| −2.34 | −3.09 | −2.71 | Dental visit | 3,239 | IL |
| −0.035 | −0.262 | −0.149 | Annual checkup | 1,671 | IN |
| −3.12 | −3.83 | −3.47 | Dental visit | 1,671 | IN |
| 0.241 | −0.148 | 0.047 | Annual checkup | 887 | IA |
| −2.41 | −3.12 | −2.77 | Dental visit | 887 | IA |
| −0.075 | −0.353 | −0.214 | Annual checkup | 811 | KS |
| −2.67 | −3.47 | −3.07 | Dental visit | 811 | KS |
| −0.028 | −0.136 | −0.082 | Annual checkup | 1,285 | KY |
| −3.35 | −3.87 | −3.61 | Dental visit | 1,285 | KY |
| 0.488 | 0.144 | 0.316 | Annual checkup | 1,352 | LA |
| −3.52 | −4.38 | −3.95 | Dental visit | 1,352 | LA |
| 0.492 | −0.013 | 0.239 | Annual checkup | 399 | ME |
| −2.43 | −2.95 | −2.69 | Dental visit | 399 | ME |
| 0.577 | 0.043 | 0.310 | Annual checkup | 1,451 | MD |
| −3.08 | −3.73 | −3.41 | Dental visit | 1,451 | MD |
| 0.696 | −0.341 | 0.177 | Annual checkup | 1,576 | MA |
| −2.09 | −3.89 | −2.99 | Dental visit | 1,576 | MA |
| 0.273 | −0.206 | 0.034 | Annual checkup | 2,872 | MI |
| −2.62 | −3.82 | −3.22 | Dental visit | 2,872 | MI |
| 0.025 | −0.332 | −0.154 | Annual checkup | 1,492 | MN |
| −2.27 | −3.09 | −2.68 | Dental visit | 1,492 | MN |
| 0.600 | 0.173 | 0.387 | Annual checkup | 867 | MS |
| −1.43 | −1.88 | −1.66 | Dental visit | 867 | MS |
| 0.092 | −0.300 | −0.104 | Annual checkup | 1,641 | MO |
| −3.25 | −3.68 | −3.47 | Dental visit | 1,641 | MO |
| 0.947 | −0.482 | 0.232 | Annual checkup | 316 | MT |
| −1.91 | −2.95 | −2.43 | Dental visit | 316 | MT |
| −0.204 | −0.497 | −0.350 | Annual checkup | 547 | NE |
| −2.60 | −3.78 | −3.19 | Dental visit | 547 | NE |
| −0.251 | −0.963 | −0.607 | Annual checkup | 767 | NV |
| −3.17 | −4.51 | −3.84 | Dental visit | 767 | NV |
| −0.002 | −1.06 | −0.530 | Annual checkup | 346 | NH |
| −2.23 | −3.10 | −2.67 | Dental visit | 346 | NH |
| 0.441 | −0.353 | 0.044 | Annual checkup | 2,155 | NJ |
| −2.61 | −4.18 | −3.40 | Dental visit | 2,155 | NJ |
| −0.335 | −0.969 | −0.652 | Annual checkup | 595 | NM |
| −3.23 | −4.19 | −3.71 | Dental visit | 595 | NM |
| 0.446 | −0.068 | 0.189 | Annual checkup | 5,196 | NY |
| 0.164 | −1.22 | −0.526 | Dental visit | 5,196 | NY |
| 0.287 | 0.009 | 0.148 | Annual checkup | 2,625 | NC |
| −2.88 | −3.25 | −3.06 | Dental visit | 2,625 | NC |
| 0.909 | 0.246 | 0.577 | Annual checkup | 225 | ND |
| −1.50 | −2.73 | −2.11 | Dental visit | 225 | ND |
| 0.211 | −0.126 | 0.043 | Annual checkup | 3,131 | OH |
| −3.34 | −3.77 | −3.56 | Dental visit | 3,131 | OH |
| −0.009 | −0.331 | −0.170 | Annual checkup | 1,186 | OK |
| −3.65 | −4.21 | −3.93 | Dental visit | 1,186 | OK |
| 0.642 | −0.513 | 0.065 | Annual checkup | 990 | OR |
| −2.56 | −3.59 | −3.07 | Dental visit | 990 | OR |
| 0.236 | −0.079 | 0.079 | Annual checkup | 3,374 | PA |
| −2.40 | −3.33 | −2.86 | Dental visit | 3,374 | PA |
| −0.463 | −0.992 | −0.727 | Annual checkup | 244 | RI |
| −3.26 | −5.87 | −4.56 | Dental visit | 244 | RI |
| 0.431 | 0.043 | 0.237 | Annual checkup | 1,295 | SC |
| −2.89 | −3.56 | −3.22 | Dental visit | 1,295 | SC |
| 0.101 | −0.535 | −0.217 | Annual checkup | 242 | SD |
| −2.33 | −3.80 | −3.07 | Dental visit | 242 | SD |
| 0.378 | −0.036 | 0.171 | Annual checkup | 1,669 | TN |
| −2.51 | −3.76 | −3.14 | Dental visit | 1,669 | TN |
| 0.009 | −0.387 | −0.189 | Annual checkup | 6,789 | TX |
| −3.33 | −3.95 | −3.64 | Dental visit | 6,789 | TX |
| 0.010 | −0.821 | −0.405 | Annual checkup | 705 | UT |
| −2.99 | −3.90 | −3.45 | Dental visit | 705 | UT |
| 0.796 | −0.182 | 0.307 | Annual checkup | 192 | VT |
| −1.99 | −2.73 | −2.36 | Dental visit | 192 | VT |
| 0.495 | 0.226 | 0.361 | Annual checkup | 2,141 | VA |
| −2.27 | −2.67 | −2.47 | Dental visit | 2,141 | VA |
| −0.002 | −0.490 | −0.246 | Annual checkup | 1,757 | WA |
| −2.96 | −3.68 | −3.32 | Dental visit | 1,757 | WA |
| 0.392 | −0.083 | 0.154 | Annual checkup | 543 | WV |
| −2.31 | −3.79 | −3.05 | Dental visit | 543 | WV |
| 0.676 | −0.430 | 0.123 | Annual checkup | 1,520 | WI |
| −2.36 | −4.15 | −3.25 | Dental visit | 1,520 | WI |
| −0.048 | −0.920 | −0.484 | Annual checkup | 158 | WY |
| −1.72 | −2.84 | −2.28 | Dental visit | 158 | WY |

Note: States are shown by their postal codes. Delaware, Hawaii and the District of Columbia have too few counties for cluster-robust errors, so their intervals use HC3 errors, and the District of Columbia is a single county. Every state has at least 158 tracts, above the floor of 60, so none is dropped.

Note: PLACES values are modeled estimates. They are built from BRFSS survey responses with census and American Community Survey inputs (county poverty, the age, sex, race and ethnicity of each tract's residents, and education), with state and county random effects, and the Area Deprivation Index is built from American Community Survey data too, so part of each gradient here is mechanical. Within a county, tract values differ through the demographic composition of tracts. The tract file has no intervals; the bands are 95% intervals for the weighted mean from a bootstrap over counties (replicates and seed in the methods note).

Source: CDC PLACES 2024 release (BRFSS 2022) and Area Deprivation Index 2023; modeled estimates, population-weighted (adults in each tract)

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/checkup_slopes_by_state.json

### Table 7. Residents per primary care physician rise from 1,159 to 2,730 and per dentist from 1,131 to 3,055 between the least and most deprived tenths of counties

Residents per provider, pooled over the counties in each tenth of counties ranked on the county Area Deprivation Index, providers counted in 2021 (physicians), 2022 (dentists) and 2023 (mental health providers)

| Provider | County deprivation decile | Residents per provider | Lower limit of the 95% interval | Upper limit of the 95% interval | Providers | Residents | Counties | Counties with no provider in the decile |
| --- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
| Primary care physicians | 1 | 1,159 | 1,093 | 1,205 | 113,749 | 131,811,420 | 312 | 7 |
| Primary care physicians | 2 | 1,335 | 1,221 | 1,449 | 46,027 | 61,434,044 | 313 | 5 |
| Primary care physicians | 3 | 1,389 | 1,286 | 1,511 | 30,365 | 42,189,945 | 313 | 7 |
| Primary care physicians | 4 | 1,411 | 1,309 | 1,512 | 22,741 | 32,087,932 | 312 | 10 |
| Primary care physicians | 5 | 1,529 | 1,365 | 1,737 | 13,522 | 20,679,797 | 314 | 17 |
| Primary care physicians | 6 | 1,656 | 1,458 | 1,877 | 8,739 | 14,471,394 | 312 | 29 |
| Primary care physicians | 7 | 1,894 | 1,660 | 2,148 | 5,756 | 10,903,268 | 313 | 19 |
| Primary care physicians | 8 | 2,083 | 1,905 | 2,249 | 4,293 | 8,942,931 | 315 | 38 |
| Primary care physicians | 9 | 2,593 | 2,394 | 2,828 | 2,130 | 5,522,704 | 312 | 35 |
| Primary care physicians | 10 | 2,730 | 2,452 | 3,018 | 1,403 | 3,830,042 | 312 | 53 |
| Dentists | 1 | 1,131 | 1,074 | 1,232 | 116,844 | 132,162,193 | 312 | 10 |
| Dentists | 2 | 1,439 | 1,304 | 1,583 | 43,139 | 62,071,203 | 313 | 4 |
| Dentists | 3 | 1,425 | 1,351 | 1,552 | 29,869 | 42,550,714 | 313 | 13 |
| Dentists | 4 | 1,494 | 1,388 | 1,624 | 21,574 | 32,224,541 | 312 | 11 |
| Dentists | 5 | 1,622 | 1,473 | 1,848 | 12,745 | 20,677,282 | 314 | 21 |
| Dentists | 6 | 1,776 | 1,586 | 1,984 | 8,145 | 14,463,884 | 312 | 27 |
| Dentists | 7 | 1,949 | 1,775 | 2,169 | 5,585 | 10,883,473 | 313 | 22 |
| Dentists | 8 | 2,454 | 2,196 | 2,718 | 3,638 | 8,928,681 | 315 | 30 |
| Dentists | 9 | 2,713 | 2,533 | 2,920 | 2,026 | 5,496,600 | 312 | 31 |
| Dentists | 10 | 3,055 | 2,638 | 3,533 | 1,240 | 3,788,578 | 312 | 58 |
| Mental health providers | 1 | 250 | 221 | 307 | 528,315 | 132,162,193 | 312 | 2 |
| Mental health providers | 2 | 351 | 290 | 415 | 176,791 | 62,071,203 | 313 | 2 |
| Mental health providers | 3 | 372 | 312 | 436 | 114,486 | 42,550,714 | 313 | 11 |
| Mental health providers | 4 | 364 | 310 | 425 | 88,447 | 32,224,541 | 312 | 9 |
| Mental health providers | 5 | 402 | 339 | 517 | 51,406 | 20,677,282 | 314 | 16 |
| Mental health providers | 6 | 463 | 363 | 604 | 31,271 | 14,463,884 | 312 | 26 |
| Mental health providers | 7 | 483 | 407 | 612 | 22,524 | 10,883,473 | 313 | 18 |
| Mental health providers | 8 | 551 | 426 | 746 | 16,210 | 8,928,681 | 315 | 32 |
| Mental health providers | 9 | 641 | 505 | 837 | 8,572 | 5,496,600 | 312 | 38 |
| Mental health providers | 10 | 550 | 382 | 882 | 6,883 | 3,788,578 | 312 | 52 |

Note: Counties with no recorded provider stay in: they add residents and no providers. County Health Rankings leaves their published ratio blank above a population cutoff that differs by provider type and reports a rate of 0 below it, and the first edition of this chapter dropped them. Primary care physicians are practicing non-federal physicians under age 75 in general practice, family medicine, internal medicine and pediatrics; dentists are those with a National Provider Identifier; mental health providers include psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, counselors, therapists and mental health nurse practitioners. Providers are counted where they practice, not by the care patients receive.

Note: Deciles hold about the same number of counties, 15 small counties with no deprivation rank are outside them (so the counts of counties with no provider in the table are smaller than the counts in the text, which cover all counties), and Puerto Rico is not covered.

Note: Across all the counties in the comparison, there are 1,334 residents per primary care physician.

Source: County Health Rankings 2024 (provider counts from AMA, CMS and NPPES files, 2021-2023) and Area Deprivation Index 2023; full counts, pooled ratios

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/people_per_provider.json

### Table 8. Residents per mental health provider exceed 3,200 in 275 counties, and 91.6% of those counties have a mostly rural population

Residents per mental health provider by county, providers counted in 2023, on a scale that doubles at each step

No inline rows: the values of Table 8 are in https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/mental_health_provider_map.json.

Note: Gray counties have no mental health provider recorded in 2023; County Health Rankings leaves the ratio blank for them. They are not missing data, and their tooltip says so. Puerto Rico is not drawn. Alaska is drawn, and Connecticut appears under its eight legacy counties.

Note: Providers are counted where they practice and each county's residents are the denominator, so a county next to a large city can look thin while its residents are served across the county line.

Source: County Health Rankings 2024 (CMS National Provider Identifier file, 2023); full counts, county ratios

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/mental_health_provider_map.json

### Table 9. Residents per primary care physician is steadily worse toward the more deprived end under the ADI and under each of the three other rankings

Residents per primary care physician by tenth of counties ranked four ways, over the 3,125 counties that have all four rankings

| bin | conf_high | conf_low | estimate | n_units | ranking |
| ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | --- |
| 1 | 1210.2 | 1099.9 | 1163.7 | 312 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 2 | 1446.7 | 1202.1 | 1322.5 | 313 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 3 | 1486.1 | 1275.4 | 1368.9 | 312 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 4 | 1525.9 | 1332.6 | 1430.3 | 313 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 5 | 1763.5 | 1353.0 | 1532.7 | 312 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 6 | 1799.8 | 1472.4 | 1618.0 | 313 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 7 | 2167.6 | 1702.9 | 1921.7 | 312 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 8 | 2183.3 | 1878 | 2036.3 | 313 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 9 | 2899.6 | 2479.4 | 2673.4 | 312 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 10 | 3037.9 | 2473.2 | 2748.7 | 313 | Area Deprivation Index |
| 1 | 1170.1 | 1036.5 | 1093.8 | 312 | Standardized index |
| 2 | 1442.1 | 1209.2 | 1316.6 | 313 | Standardized index |
| 3 | 1373.7 | 1215.9 | 1279.7 | 312 | Standardized index |
| 4 | 1515.3 | 1281.3 | 1409.3 | 313 | Standardized index |
| 5 | 1638.0 | 1450.9 | 1532.5 | 312 | Standardized index |
| 6 | 1806.3 | 1462.2 | 1620.4 | 313 | Standardized index |
| 7 | 1851.3 | 1470.4 | 1648.1 | 312 | Standardized index |
| 8 | 2220.0 | 1813.4 | 2033.2 | 313 | Standardized index |
| 9 | 2549.1 | 2062.8 | 2275.0 | 312 | Standardized index |
| 10 | 2973.2 | 2513.8 | 2687.5 | 313 | Standardized index |
| 1 | 1174.8 | 1041.1 | 1104.0 | 312 | Median household income |
| 2 | 1480.2 | 1288.7 | 1377.4 | 313 | Median household income |
| 3 | 1541.3 | 1308.0 | 1422.2 | 312 | Median household income |
| 4 | 1442.7 | 1254.4 | 1346.0 | 313 | Median household income |
| 5 | 1621.0 | 1397.2 | 1501.7 | 312 | Median household income |
| 6 | 1766.7 | 1431.4 | 1588.2 | 313 | Median household income |
| 7 | 1870.8 | 1494.3 | 1664.4 | 312 | Median household income |
| 8 | 2100.5 | 1780.2 | 1953.9 | 313 | Median household income |
| 9 | 2679.2 | 2321.4 | 2495.9 | 312 | Median household income |
| 10 | 2920.6 | 2385.9 | 2615.3 | 313 | Median household income |
| 1 | 1060.4 | 965.3 | 1009.7 | 312 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 2 | 1354.3 | 1220.3 | 1279.7 | 313 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 3 | 1510.0 | 1342.3 | 1422.8 | 312 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 4 | 1801.7 | 1592.9 | 1690.5 | 313 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 5 | 1937.6 | 1628.6 | 1766.4 | 312 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 6 | 2287.0 | 1875.0 | 2058.4 | 313 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 7 | 2417.3 | 2074.7 | 2235.9 | 312 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 8 | 2668.3 | 2334.0 | 2495.9 | 313 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 9 | 2881.0 | 2467.9 | 2651.0 | 312 | Bachelor's degree share |
| 10 | 3804.9 | 3227.7 | 3519.8 | 313 | Bachelor's degree share |

Note: Least and most deprived tenth: ADI 1,164 and 2,749, rank correlation +1.00; standardized index 1,094 and 2,687, +0.99; median household income 1,104 and 2,615, +0.96; bachelor's degree share 1,010 and 3,520, +1.00.

Note: The standardized index applies the ADI's coefficients to its measures after standardizing each one, so home value and income carry less weight than in the ADI. Income and degree share are single census measures, each ranked from the highest value to the lowest.

Source: County Health Rankings 2024 (provider counts from AMA, CMS and NPPES files, 2021-2023) and Area Deprivation Index 2023; full counts, pooled ratios; ADI 2023 and ACS 2019-2023 tract tables (B19013, B15003 and the 15 rebuilt ADI measures)

Data: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/alt_rankings.json

## All estimates

Every fact in facts.json (134), sorted by id.

| Fact id | Value | Unit | Estimand | Population | Period | Interval | n | Weights | Source | Note |
| --- | ---: | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---: | --- | --- | --- |
| age_col_hi | 75 | years of age | age limit of the measure's population (a definition) | adults covered by the PLACES measure of colorectal cancer screening | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (definition) | CDC PLACES |   |
| age_col_lo | 45 | years of age | age limit of the measure's population (a definition) | adults covered by the PLACES measure of colorectal cancer screening | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (definition) | CDC PLACES |   |
| age_ins_hi | 64 | years of age | age limit of the measure's population (a definition) | adults covered by the PLACES measure of no health insurance | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (definition) | CDC PLACES |   |
| age_ins_lo | 18 | years of age | age limit of the measure's population (a definition) | adults covered by the PLACES measure of no health insurance | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (definition) | CDC PLACES |   |
| age_mam_hi | 74 | years of age | age limit of the measure's population (a definition) | adults covered by the PLACES measure of mammography | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (definition) | CDC PLACES |   |
| age_mam_lo | 50 | years of age | age limit of the measure's population (a definition) | adults covered by the PLACES measure of mammography | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (definition) | CDC PLACES |   |
| age_teeth | 65 | years of age | age limit of the measure's population (a definition) | adults covered by the PLACES measure of all teeth lost | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (definition) | CDC PLACES |   |
| alt_adi_least | 1,164 | Residents per primary care physician | residents of the counties divided by their primary care physicians (a pooled ratio; counties with no physician add residents and no physicians); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over states | the least deprived tenth of counties ranked by Area Deprivation Index, among the counties with all four rankings | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 | 95% CI 1,100 to 1,210 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_adi_most | 2,749 | Residents per primary care physician | residents of the counties divided by their primary care physicians (a pooled ratio; counties with no physician add residents and no physicians); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over states | the most deprived tenth of counties ranked by Area Deprivation Index, among the counties with all four rankings | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 | 95% CI 2,473 to 3,038 | 313 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_adi_rho | +1.00 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of counties ranked by Area Deprivation Index | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 |   |   | each bin counted once | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_degree_least | 1,010 | Residents per primary care physician | residents of the counties divided by their primary care physicians (a pooled ratio; counties with no physician add residents and no physicians); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over states | the least deprived tenth of counties ranked by Bachelor's degree share, among the counties with all four rankings | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 | 95% CI 965 to 1,060 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_degree_most | 3,520 | Residents per primary care physician | residents of the counties divided by their primary care physicians (a pooled ratio; counties with no physician add residents and no physicians); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over states | the most deprived tenth of counties ranked by Bachelor's degree share, among the counties with all four rankings | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 | 95% CI 3,228 to 3,805 | 313 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_degree_rho | +1.00 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of counties ranked by Bachelor's degree share | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 |   |   | each bin counted once | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_income_least | 1,104 | Residents per primary care physician | residents of the counties divided by their primary care physicians (a pooled ratio; counties with no physician add residents and no physicians); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over states | the least deprived tenth of counties ranked by Median household income, among the counties with all four rankings | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 | 95% CI 1,041 to 1,175 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_income_most | 2,615 | Residents per primary care physician | residents of the counties divided by their primary care physicians (a pooled ratio; counties with no physician add residents and no physicians); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over states | the most deprived tenth of counties ranked by Median household income, among the counties with all four rankings | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 | 95% CI 2,386 to 2,921 | 313 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_income_rho | +0.96 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of counties ranked by Median household income | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 |   |   | each bin counted once | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_n_places | 3,125 | counties | count of counties in the common sample of the ranking comparison | counties with the outcome and all four rankings | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 |   |   | none (full count) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_rho_cut | 0.9 | absolute rank correlation | threshold between a steady and an uneven gradient | the rule for changed gradients (docs/RANKING_SWITCH_RULE.md) | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 |   |   | none (a fixed rule) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_rho_margin | 0.1 | absolute rank correlation | smallest move in the rank correlation that counts as a change of shape | the rule for changed gradients (docs/RANKING_SWITCH_RULE.md) | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 |   |   | none (a fixed rule) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_std_least | 1,094 | Residents per primary care physician | residents of the counties divided by their primary care physicians (a pooled ratio; counties with no physician add residents and no physicians); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over states | the least deprived tenth of counties ranked by Standardized index, among the counties with all four rankings | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 | 95% CI 1,037 to 1,170 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_std_most | 2,687 | Residents per primary care physician | residents of the counties divided by their primary care physicians (a pooled ratio; counties with no physician add residents and no physicians); 95% intervals from a bootstrap over states | the most deprived tenth of counties ranked by Standardized index, among the counties with all four rankings | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 | 95% CI 2,514 to 2,973 | 313 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| alt_std_rho | +0.99 | rank correlation | Spearman rank correlation between bin order and bin mean, each bin counted once | the bins of counties ranked by Standardized index | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year; rankings from ACS 2019-2023 |   |   | each bin counted once | County Health Rankings |   |
| bpmed_ratio | 1.08 | ratio of prevalence, most deprived tenth to least deprived tenth | weighted mean prevalence in the most deprived tenth of tracts over that in the least deprived tenth, bootstrap interval over counties | adults: taking medicine for high blood pressure, among adults with high blood pressure | BRFSS 2021 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 1.06 to 1.09 | 7,946 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| care_dent_all | 1,361 | residents per dentist | residents of all counties divided by their providers, bootstrap interval over states | residents of all counties in County Health Rankings 2024 | dentists in 2022 | 95% CI 1,261 to 1,476 | 3,143 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_dent_d1 | 1,131 | residents per dentist | residents of the counties divided by their providers (a pooled ratio; counties with no provider add residents and no providers), bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties in the least deprived tenth of counties by county ADI | dentists in 2022; residents in the same year | 95% CI 1,074 to 1,232 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_dent_d10 | 3,055 | residents per dentist | residents of the counties divided by their providers (a pooled ratio; counties with no provider add residents and no providers), bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties in the most deprived tenth of counties by county ADI | dentists in 2022; residents in the same year | 95% CI 2,638 to 3,533 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_dent_mult | 2.7 | ratio of residents per dentist, most deprived tenth of counties to least deprived tenth | pooled residents per provider in the most deprived tenth of counties over that in the least deprived tenth, bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties | dentists in 2022 | 95% CI 2.3 to 3.1 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_dent_r | −0.52 | correlation coefficient | county-population-weighted correlation between the county ADI and providers per 100,000 residents (counties with no provider count as zero), bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties with an ADI rank: county ADI against dentists per 100,000 residents | dentists in 2022 | 95% CI −0.61 to −0.41 | 3,128 counties | county residents (CHR denominator for the provider measure) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_dent_r_unw | −0.35 | correlation coefficient | unweighted correlation between the county ADI and providers per 100,000 residents (counties with no provider count as zero), bootstrap interval over states | counties with an ADI rank: county ADI against dentists per 100,000 residents, each county counted once | dentists in 2022 | 95% CI −0.45 to −0.27 | 3,128 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_fei_bot | 6.1 | food environment index (0 worst, 10 best) | county-population-weighted mean of the county index, bootstrap interval over states | residents of the most deprived tenth of counties | 2019 and 2021 | 95% CI 5.7 to 6.6 | 306 counties | county population | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_fei_r | −0.66 | correlation coefficient | county-population-weighted correlation, bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties with an ADI rank: county ADI against the food environment index | 2019 and 2021 | 95% CI −0.74 to −0.59 | 3,094 counties | county population | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_fei_r_unw | −0.51 | correlation coefficient | unweighted correlation, bootstrap interval over states | counties with an ADI rank: county ADI against the food environment index, each county counted once | 2019 and 2021 | 95% CI −0.58 to −0.45 | 3,094 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_fei_top | 8.6 | food environment index (0 worst, 10 best) | county-population-weighted mean of the county index, bootstrap interval over states | residents of the least deprived tenth of counties | 2019 and 2021 | 95% CI 8.5 to 8.8 | 308 counties | county population | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_mh_all | 319 | residents per mental health provider | residents of all counties divided by their providers, bootstrap interval over states | residents of all counties in County Health Rankings 2024 | mental health providers in 2023 | 95% CI 274 to 382 | 3,143 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_mh_d1 | 250 | residents per mental health provider | residents of the counties divided by their providers (a pooled ratio; counties with no provider add residents and no providers), bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties in the least deprived tenth of counties by county ADI | mental health providers in 2023; residents in the same year | 95% CI 221 to 307 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_mh_d10 | 550 | residents per mental health provider | residents of the counties divided by their providers (a pooled ratio; counties with no provider add residents and no providers), bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties in the most deprived tenth of counties by county ADI | mental health providers in 2023; residents in the same year | 95% CI 382 to 882 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_mh_mult | 2.2 | ratio of residents per mental health provider, most deprived tenth of counties to least deprived tenth | pooled residents per provider in the most deprived tenth of counties over that in the least deprived tenth, bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties | mental health providers in 2023 | 95% CI 1.5 to 3.5 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_mh_r | −0.42 | correlation coefficient | county-population-weighted correlation between the county ADI and providers per 100,000 residents (counties with no provider count as zero), bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties with an ADI rank: county ADI against mental health providers per 100,000 residents | mental health providers in 2023 | 95% CI −0.53 to −0.26 | 3,128 counties | county residents (CHR denominator for the provider measure) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_mh_r_unw | −0.33 | correlation coefficient | unweighted correlation between the county ADI and providers per 100,000 residents (counties with no provider count as zero), bootstrap interval over states | counties with an ADI rank: county ADI against mental health providers per 100,000 residents, each county counted once | mental health providers in 2023 | 95% CI −0.44 to −0.23 | 3,128 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_pcp_all | 1,334 | residents per primary care physician | residents of all counties divided by their providers, bootstrap interval over states | residents of all counties in County Health Rankings 2024 | primary care physicians in 2021 | 95% CI 1,276 to 1,406 | 3,143 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_pcp_d1 | 1,159 | residents per primary care physician | residents of the counties divided by their providers (a pooled ratio; counties with no provider add residents and no providers), bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties in the least deprived tenth of counties by county ADI | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year | 95% CI 1,093 to 1,205 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_pcp_d10 | 2,730 | residents per primary care physician | residents of the counties divided by their providers (a pooled ratio; counties with no provider add residents and no providers), bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties in the most deprived tenth of counties by county ADI | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year | 95% CI 2,452 to 3,018 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_pcp_mult | 2.4 | ratio of residents per primary care physician, most deprived tenth of counties to least deprived tenth | pooled residents per provider in the most deprived tenth of counties over that in the least deprived tenth, bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties | primary care physicians in 2021 | 95% CI 2.1 to 2.6 | 312 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_pcp_r | −0.41 | correlation coefficient | county-population-weighted correlation between the county ADI and providers per 100,000 residents (counties with no provider count as zero), bootstrap interval over states | residents of counties with an ADI rank: county ADI against primary care physicians per 100,000 residents | primary care physicians in 2021 | 95% CI −0.46 to −0.35 | 3,128 counties | county residents (CHR denominator for the provider measure) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_pcp_r_unw | −0.37 | correlation coefficient | unweighted correlation between the county ADI and providers per 100,000 residents (counties with no provider count as zero), bootstrap interval over states | counties with an ADI rank: county ADI against primary care physicians per 100,000 residents, each county counted once | primary care physicians in 2021 | 95% CI −0.43 to −0.32 | 3,128 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_ph_hi | 4,012 | preventable hospital stays per 100,000 Medicare enrollees | county-population-weighted mean of the county rate, bootstrap interval over states | Medicare enrollees in the most deprived tenth of counties | 2021 | 95% CI 3,608 to 4,435 | 305 counties | county population (enrollee counts are not in the staged file) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_ph_lo | 2,370 | preventable hospital stays per 100,000 Medicare enrollees | county-population-weighted mean of the county rate, bootstrap interval over states | Medicare enrollees in the least deprived tenth of counties | 2021 | 95% CI 2,188 to 2,599 | 304 counties | county population (enrollee counts are not in the staged file) | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_ph_r | +0.46 | correlation coefficient | county-population-weighted correlation, bootstrap interval over states | Medicare enrollees in counties with an ADI rank: county ADI against preventable hospital stays | 2021 | 95% CI 0.31 to 0.56 | 3,067 counties | county population | County Health Rankings |   |
| care_ph_r_unw | +0.38 | correlation coefficient | unweighted correlation, bootstrap interval over states | counties with an ADI rank: county ADI against preventable hospital stays, each county counted once | 2021 | 95% CI 0.30 to 0.46 | 3,067 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| cat_band | 0.5 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | half-width of the band around zero used to call a slope small (a definition) | the checkup slopes of the states | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (rule) | CDC PLACES |   |
| cat_checkup_maxabs | +1.7 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | population-weighted slope of tract prevalence on the ADI national percentile, times ten; the interval is HC3 because the District of Columbia is a single county | the state with the largest routine checkup slope in absolute value (District of Columbia), adults | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 1.3 to 2.1 | 201 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| cat_checkup_med | +0.03 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | median of the state estimates, each a population-weighted slope of tract prevalence on the ADI national percentile, times ten | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have an ADI rank and both measures, routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 51 states | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | A median of 51 estimates; each state's interval is in the figure. |
| cat_checkup_signeg | 18 | states | count of states whose 95% interval for the routine checkup slope lies below zero | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have an ADI rank and both measures | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 51 states | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| cat_checkup_sigpos | 10 | states | count of states whose 95% interval for the routine checkup slope lies above zero | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have an ADI rank and both measures | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 51 states | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| cat_checkup_small | 42 | states | count of states whose routine checkup slope is within the band around zero | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have an ADI rank and both measures | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 51 states | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| cat_checkup_span | 23 | states | count of states whose 95% interval for the routine checkup slope includes zero | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have an ADI rank and both measures | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 51 states | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| cat_dental_med | −3.2 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | median of the state estimates, each a population-weighted slope of tract prevalence on the ADI national percentile, times ten | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have an ADI rank and both measures, dental visit in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 51 states | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | A median of 51 estimates; each state's interval is in the figure. |
| cat_dental_negn | 51 | states | count of states whose dental visit slope on the ADI is negative | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have an ADI rank and both measures | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 51 states | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| cat_dental_signeg | 50 | states | count of states whose 95% interval for the dental visit slope lies below zero | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have an ADI rank and both measures | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 51 states | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| cat_dental_small | 0 | states | count of states whose dental visit slope is within the band around zero | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have an ADI rank and both measures | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 51 states | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| cat_floor | 60 | tracts | minimum number of tracts with every variable for a state to enter (an inclusion rule that drops no state) | states in the state slopes and the coefficient zoo | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (rule) | CDC PLACES |   |
| cat_min_tracts | 158 | tracts | smallest state tract count | the state with the fewest tracts that have an ADI rank and both measures | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| cat_n_states | 51 | states | count of states and the District of Columbia | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have an ADI rank and both measures | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| checkup_hi | 77.8% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 77.3% to 78.2% | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| checkup_lo | 74.2% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the least deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 73.2% to 75.3% | 8,274 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| checkup_ratio | 1.05 | ratio of prevalence, most deprived tenth to least deprived tenth | weighted mean prevalence in the most deprived tenth of tracts over that in the least deprived tenth, bootstrap interval over counties | adults: routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 1.03 to 1.06 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| chr_cut_dent | 4,000 | residents | population above which the staged ratio is blank and below which it holds a negative population, read from the file and rounded to the nearest thousand | counties with no recorded dentist | dentists in 2022 |   |   | none (rule) | County Health Rankings |   |
| chr_cut_mh | 1,000 | residents | population above which the staged ratio is blank and below which it holds a negative population, read from the file and rounded to the nearest thousand | counties with no recorded mental health provider | mental health providers in 2023 |   |   | none (rule) | County Health Rankings |   |
| chr_cut_pcp | 2,000 | residents | population above which the staged ratio is blank and below which it holds a negative population, read from the file and rounded to the nearest thousand | counties with no recorded primary care physician | primary care physicians in 2021 |   |   | none (rule) | County Health Rankings |   |
| dep_delta | 4.8 | percentage points of adults, higher in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: depression | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 4.1 to 5.6 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| dep_ratio | 1.25 | ratio of prevalence, most deprived tenth to least deprived tenth | weighted mean prevalence in the most deprived tenth of tracts over that in the least deprived tenth, bootstrap interval over counties | adults: depression | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 1.21 to 1.30 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| diab_hi | 17.5% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: diagnosed diabetes | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 17.3% to 17.9% | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| diab_lo | 9.5% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the least deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: diagnosed diabetes | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 9.0% to 9.9% | 8,274 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_bpmed_delta | 5.9 | percentage points of adults, higher in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: taking medicine for high blood pressure, among adults with high blood pressure | BRFSS 2021 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 4.8 to 6.7 | 7,946 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_checkup_delta | 3.6 | percentage points of adults, higher in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: routine checkup in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 2.4 to 4.6 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_chol_delta | 6.9 | percentage points of adults, lower in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: cholesterol screening in the past five years | BRFSS 2021 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 6.2 to 7.5 | 7,946 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_colon_delta | 6.2 | percentage points of adults, lower in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: colorectal cancer screening up to date, ages 45 to 75 | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 4.4 to 8.2 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_dental_d1 | 70.3% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the least deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: dental visit in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 68.5% to 72.1% | 8,274 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_dental_d10 | 45.8% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: dental visit in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 45.0% to 46.6% | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_dental_delta | 24.4 | percentage points of adults, lower in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: dental visit in the past year | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 22.5 to 26.5 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_mammo_delta | 7.0 | percentage points of adults, lower in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: mammography in the past two years, women ages 50 to 74 | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 6.3 to 7.8 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_notrans_delta | 9.7 | percentage points of adults, higher in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: lack of reliable transportation in the past 12 months | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 9.0 to 10.5 | 6,348 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_uninsured_d1 | 6.3% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the least deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: no health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 5.7% to 6.8% | 8,274 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_uninsured_d10 | 17.4% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: no health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 16.1% to 18.9% | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| flat_uninsured_delta | 11.1 | percentage points of adults, higher in the most deprived tenth of tracts | difference between the weighted mean prevalence of the least deprived and the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile, bootstrap interval over counties (draws shared by the two means) | adults: no health insurance, ages 18 to 64 | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 9.7 to 12.7 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| map_hi_n | 275 | counties | count of counties with more residents per provider than the break | counties with at least one recorded mental health provider | mental health providers in 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | County Health Rankings |   |
| map_hi_rural | 91.6% | percent of those counties | share of the counties that are majority rural (CHR percent rural above 50, 2020 census) | counties with more than 3,200 residents per mental health provider | mental health providers in 2023; rural share 2020 census |   | 275 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| map_hi_sm | 96.0% | percent of those counties | share of the counties in the Midwest or South Census regions | counties with more than 3,200 residents per mental health provider | mental health providers in 2023 |   | 275 counties | none (each county counts once) | County Health Rankings |   |
| map_hi_thr | 3,200 | residents per mental health provider | a break of the map's key (a definition) | counties on the map | mental health providers in 2023 |   |   | none (rule) | County Health Rankings |   |
| map_n_gray | 216 | counties | count of counties with no recorded mental health provider | counties drawn on the map (Puerto Rico not drawn) | mental health providers in 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | County Health Rankings |   |
| n_adi_tracts | 82,781 | tracts | count of tracts | census tracts with a PLACES estimate and an Area Deprivation Index rank | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| n_care_counties | 3,128 | counties | count of counties | counties and county equivalents in County Health Rankings 2024 with an ADI rank | 2021 to 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | County Health Rankings |   |
| n_chr_counties | 3,143 | counties | count of counties | counties and county equivalents in County Health Rankings 2024 (Puerto Rico not included) | 2021 to 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | County Health Rankings |   |
| n_higher_measures | 34 | measures | count of measures whose 95% interval for the ratio of the most deprived tenth to the least deprived tenth lies above 1 | PLACES measures in the tract file | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 40 measures | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| n_last_step | 11 | measures | count of measures whose largest step between neighboring twentieths of tracts, ranked by ADI, is the step into the most deprived twentieth | the twelve PLACES measures of the twelve-outcome figure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 12 measures | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | Point estimates of the twentieth means; the intervals of the means are in the figure. |
| n_less_points | 4 | measures | count of measures, none of them plotted in the twelve-outcome figure, whose difference in points between the most deprived and the least deprived tenth is smaller than the checkup's | PLACES measures that are higher in the most deprived tenth | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 34 measures | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| n_no_adi | 741 | tracts | count of tracts | census tracts with a PLACES estimate and no Area Deprivation Index rank | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | Area Deprivation Index | The ADI is missing for tracts whose block groups are all suppressed. |
| n_no_adi_counties | 15 | counties | count of counties with no tract that has a deprivation rank and a population | counties in County Health Rankings 2024 | tract ranks from ADI 2023, ACS 2019-2023 population |   |   | none (full count) | Area Deprivation Index |   |
| n_panels | 12 | measures | count of measures | PLACES measures in the twelve-outcome figure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (rule) | CDC PLACES |   |
| n_places_measures | 40 | measures | count of measures (rule) | PLACES measures in the tract file | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (rule) | CDC PLACES |   |
| n_places_tracts | 83,522 | tracts | count of tracts | 2020 census tracts with a CDC PLACES 2024 release estimate | PLACES 2024 release |   |   | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| n_rising | 11 | measures | count of measures (rule) | the twelve PLACES measures of the twelve-outcome figure other than the annual checkup | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (rule) | CDC PLACES |   |
| n_spec_tracts | 82,779 | tracts | count of tracts | tracts with an ADI rank, both measures and the three ACS controls | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| n_zero_dent | 239 | counties | count of counties with no recorded dentist | counties in County Health Rankings 2024 | dentists in 2022 |   |   | none (full count) | County Health Rankings |   |
| n_zero_mh | 216 | counties | count of counties with no recorded mental health provider | counties in County Health Rankings 2024 | mental health providers in 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | County Health Rankings |   |
| n_zero_pcp | 232 | counties | count of counties with no recorded primary care physician | counties in County Health Rankings 2024 | primary care physicians in 2021 |   |   | none (full count) | County Health Rankings |   |
| smk_hi | 22.8% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the most deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: current cigarette smoking | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 22.5% to 23.1% | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| smk_lo | 9.1% | percent of adults | weighted mean of the tract prevalence in a tenth of tracts (equal numbers of tracts), bootstrap interval over counties | adults in the least deprived tenth of tracts by ADI national percentile: current cigarette smoking | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 8.5% to 9.6% | 8,274 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| smk_mult | 2.5 | ratio of prevalence, most deprived tenth to least deprived tenth | weighted mean prevalence in the most deprived tenth of tracts over that in the least deprived tenth, bootstrap interval over counties | adults: current cigarette smoking | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 2.4 to 2.7 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| spec_checkup_all | +0.41 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | population-weighted least-squares slope of tract prevalence on the ADI national percentile, times ten; all tracts; cluster-robust interval with counties as clusters | adults: routine checkup in the past year, all tracts | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 0.29 to 0.54 | 82,779 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| spec_checkup_county | −0.27 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | population-weighted least-squares slope of tract prevalence on the ADI national percentile, times ten; county fixed effects; cluster-robust interval with counties as clusters | adults: routine checkup in the past year, within counties | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI −0.35 to −0.19 | 82,779 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| spec_checkup_ctrl | −0.05 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | population-weighted least-squares slope of tract prevalence on the ADI national percentile, times ten; state fixed effects and tract shares of residents ages 65 and over, Black alone and Hispanic; cluster-robust interval with counties as clusters | adults: routine checkup in the past year, within states, with age and race controls | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI −0.10 to 0.01 | 82,779 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| spec_checkup_maxwithin | 0.27 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | largest absolute checkup slope among the specifications that hold the state or county fixed | adults: routine checkup, the three specifications within states or counties | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 82,779 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | A point estimate; the intervals are in the figure. |
| spec_checkup_state | −0.01 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | population-weighted least-squares slope of tract prevalence on the ADI national percentile, times ten; state fixed effects; cluster-robust interval with counties as clusters | adults: routine checkup in the past year, within states | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI −0.08 to 0.05 | 82,779 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| spec_dental_all | −2.37 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | population-weighted least-squares slope of tract prevalence on the ADI national percentile, times ten; all tracts; cluster-robust interval with counties as clusters | adults: dental visit in the past year, all tracts | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI −2.66 to −2.08 | 82,779 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| spec_dental_county | −3.86 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | population-weighted least-squares slope of tract prevalence on the ADI national percentile, times ten; county fixed effects; cluster-robust interval with counties as clusters | adults: dental visit in the past year, within counties | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI −3.99 to −3.73 | 82,779 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| spec_dental_ctrl | −2.38 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | population-weighted least-squares slope of tract prevalence on the ADI national percentile, times ten; state fixed effects and tract shares of residents ages 65 and over, Black alone and Hispanic; cluster-robust interval with counties as clusters | adults: dental visit in the past year, within states, with age and race controls | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI −2.51 to −2.24 | 82,779 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| spec_dental_state | −2.97 | points of prevalence per ten-point step in the ADI national percentile | population-weighted least-squares slope of tract prevalence on the ADI national percentile, times ten; state fixed effects; cluster-robust interval with counties as clusters | adults: dental visit in the past year, within states | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI −3.14 to −2.80 | 82,779 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| spec_ratio_min | 8.8 | ratio of absolute slopes | smallest absolute dental slope over the largest absolute checkup slope among the specifications that hold the state or county fixed | adults: dental visit slope over routine checkup slope, the three specifications within states or counties | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   | 82,779 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | A ratio of two point estimates. |
| teeth_ratio | 3.6 | ratio of prevalence, most deprived tenth to least deprived tenth | weighted mean prevalence in the most deprived tenth of tracts over that in the least deprived tenth, bootstrap interval over counties | adults: all teeth lost, among adults ages 65 and over | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 | 95% CI 3.1 to 4.1 | 8,213 tracts | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES |   |
| tenth_max | 8,511 | tracts | largest count of tracts in a tenth (tied ranks fall in the same tenth) | tracts in the largest tenth by ADI national percentile | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| tenth_min | 8,118 | tracts | smallest count of tracts in a tenth (tied ranks fall in the same tenth) | tracts in the smallest tenth by ADI national percentile | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ADI 2023 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| us_pcp | 1,334 | residents per primary care physician | residents of all the counties of the tenths divided by their providers (a pooled ratio; counties with no provider add residents and no providers), bootstrap interval over states (the draws of the tenths) | residents of all the counties in the comparison: counties in County Health Rankings 2024 with an ADI rank | primary care physicians in 2021; residents in the same year | 95% CI 1,276 to 1,406 | 3,128 counties | none (pooled ratio of counts) | County Health Rankings |   |
| zoo_binge_med | +1.2 | points of prevalence per doubling of tract median household income | median of the state estimates, each a population-weighted regression across the state's tracts of tract prevalence on the log of median household income, with tract shares of residents ages 65 and over, Black alone and Hispanic as controls, times the natural log of 2 | adults: binge drinking, states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have income, the three controls and the measure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ACS 2019-2023 |   | 51 states | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | A median of the state estimates; each state's interval is in the table. |
| zoo_binge_posn | 50 | states | count of states where binge drinking is higher in higher-income tracts | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have income, the three controls and the measure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ACS 2019-2023 |   | 51 states | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| zoo_binge_sig | 41 | states | count of states whose 95% interval for the binge drinking slope lies above zero | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have income, the three controls and the measure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ACS 2019-2023 |   | 51 states | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| zoo_five_negn | 51 | states | count of states where all five other behaviors have a negative slope on income | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have income, the three controls and the measure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ACS 2019-2023 |   | 51 states | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| zoo_five_sigmin | 47 | states | smallest, over the five other behaviors, of the count of states whose 95% interval for the slope lies below zero | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have income, the three controls and the measure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ACS 2019-2023 |   | 51 states | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| zoo_inact_med | −6.7 | points of prevalence per doubling of tract median household income | median of the state estimates, each a population-weighted regression across the state's tracts of tract prevalence on the log of median household income, with tract shares of residents ages 65 and over, Black alone and Hispanic as controls, times the natural log of 2 | adults: no leisure-time physical activity, states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have income, the three controls and the measure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ACS 2019-2023 |   | 51 states | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | A median of the state estimates; each state's interval is in the table. |
| zoo_n_measures | 6 | measures | count of measures (rule) | PLACES measures in the coefficient zoo | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ACS 2019-2023 |   |   | none (rule) | CDC PLACES |   |
| zoo_n_models | 306 | regressions | count of state-by-behavior regressions | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have income, the three controls and the measure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ACS 2019-2023 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| zoo_n_states | 51 | states | count of states and the District of Columbia | states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have income, the three controls and the measure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ACS 2019-2023 |   |   | none (full count) | CDC PLACES |   |
| zoo_obes_med | −4.3 | points of prevalence per doubling of tract median household income | median of the state estimates, each a population-weighted regression across the state's tracts of tract prevalence on the log of median household income, with tract shares of residents ages 65 and over, Black alone and Hispanic as controls, times the natural log of 2 | adults: obesity, states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have income, the three controls and the measure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ACS 2019-2023 |   | 51 states | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | A median of the state estimates; each state's interval is in the table. |
| zoo_smoke_med | −4.7 | points of prevalence per doubling of tract median household income | median of the state estimates, each a population-weighted regression across the state's tracts of tract prevalence on the log of median household income, with tract shares of residents ages 65 and over, Black alone and Hispanic as controls, times the natural log of 2 | adults: current cigarette smoking, states and the District of Columbia with at least 60 tracts that have income, the three controls and the measure | BRFSS 2022 (PLACES 2024 release); ACS 2019-2023 |   | 51 states | adult population of the tract (PLACES) | CDC PLACES | A median of the state estimates; each state's interval is in the table. |

## Definitions

- Modeled estimate: A figure produced by a statistical model instead of a direct count or measurement, usually for small areas where direct data are thin, borrowing strength from surveys, neighboring areas or other data. Neighboring areas can share errors, so single extremes call for caution.
- Census tract: A small area drawn by the Census Bureau to stand in for a neighborhood. Boundaries are redrawn after each decennial census.
- Area Deprivation Index (ADI): A score that ranks neighborhoods by income, education, employment and housing conditions drawn from the American Community Survey. In this book a higher national percentile means a more deprived neighborhood.
- Fixed effects: A regression adjustment that gives each group, such as each county, its own baseline. The estimate then rests on differences within groups.
- Inverse care law: The pattern that people who need medical care most tend to receive the least of it. The physician Julian Tudor Hart named it in 1971.

## Methods

This chapter compares adults in tenths of census tracts ranked by the Area Deprivation Index 2023, and counties ranked the same way, on health behaviors, access to care and provider supply. The tract values are model-based estimates from CDC PLACES, built from BRFSS 2022 (2021 for four measures) with poverty, demographic and education inputs, not direct counts, and the staged tract file has no intervals. Outcome, deprivation and provider counts come from different years (provider counts are for 2021 to 2023). Tracts and counties without a deprivation rank are left out (741 tracts and 15 small counties), and a county with no recorded provider adds residents and no providers to a provider ratio. Means are weighted by the tract's adult population.

### How tract prevalence is estimated

Tract prevalence is CDC PLACES, 2024 release, crude prevalence among adults: model-based estimates built from BRFSS 2022 (2021 for blood pressure, blood pressure medicine, high cholesterol and cholesterol screening) with county poverty, the age, sex, race and ethnicity of each tract's residents and education from the American Community Survey and the census, and state and county random effects, so that within a county tract values differ through demographic composition.

The staged tract file has no intervals.

Explains Table 1, Table 3 and Table 4.

### How tracts are ranked, grouped and weighted

Deprivation is the Area Deprivation Index 2023 national percentile (1 least, 100 most deprived), and 741 tracts have no rank and are left out. Tenths hold 8,118 to 8,511 tracts (tied ranks fall in the same tenth) and twentieths fewer.

Means are weighted by the tract's adult population, including for measures that cover only some ages because the file has no population for them; counting each tract once gives similar differences.

Explains Table 1, Table 3 and Table 4.

### How provider supply is measured

Provider supply is from County Health Rankings 2024.

Residents per provider in a group of counties is the group's residents divided by its providers, so a county with no recorded provider adds residents and no providers; the county ratios that County Health Rankings publishes are not used.

Counties are ranked on the county Area Deprivation Index, the mean of the tract percentiles weighted by 2019-2023 population, with Connecticut tracts assigned to its eight legacy counties; 15 small counties have no rank. County percent rural is from the 2020 census.

Explains Table 7 and Table 8.

### How the map is shaded and what is left out

The map shades residents per mental health provider on a scale that doubles at each step and draws counties with no recorded provider in gray.

Counties are not suppressed anywhere in this chapter, and no tract or county estimate is set to zero.

Explains Table 8.

### How uncertainty is measured

Intervals for means, differences and ratios are percentile intervals from 2,000 draws of whole counties with replacement (seed 12345); differences and ratios share the draws of their two means.

Intervals for pooled ratios, county means and correlations come from the same draw scheme applied to whole states (seed 12345); correlations are reported weighted by county residents and with each county counted once.

### How the slopes and the coefficient zoo are fitted

Slopes are population-weighted least-squares fits with cluster-robust errors and t intervals, counties as clusters; fixed effects are absorbed by weighted demeaning and checked against a regression with dummy variables.

The coefficient zoo fits, for each state with at least 60 tracts that have every variable, the tract prevalence of a behavior on the natural log of median household income (ACS 2019-2023) with the shares of residents ages 65 and over, Black alone and Hispanic as controls, and reports the coefficient times the natural log of 2. States with fewer than five counties use HC3 errors.

Explains Table 2, Table 5 and Table 6.

### Four rankings of the same places

The comparison follows the book's ranking switch rule, fixed on October 28, 2026 before any of these gradients was computed. The main gradient of the chapter is recomputed under four rankings of the same places, with the outcome, period, weights, bins and intervals unchanged: the published ADI; a standardized index that applies the ADI's coefficients to its measures after standardizing each one across tracts; median household income; and the share of adults 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or more. The three alternatives come from ACS tract estimates for 2019 to 2023, the period of the ADI.

All four rankings use the same places, the 3,125 counties that have the outcome and all four rankings, so the ADI panel can differ slightly from the chapter's main figure. Tracts enter only if they have every input of the standardized index, which leaves out tracts without a median rent, home value or mortgage cost. A county takes the population-weighted mean of the ranks of its common-sample tracts, with Connecticut tracts assigned to its eight legacy counties, as for the county ADI.

A pattern counts as changed when the worse end switches sides, when the two ends differ under one ranking and not the other, or when the rank correlation of bin order and bin mean falls on the other side of 0.9 and moves by at least 0.1.

Explains Table 9.

## What these data cannot show

PLACES values are modeled estimates, and the tract file has no intervals, so the bands in this chapter describe the sampling of counties and not the model's own uncertainty. The model and the Area Deprivation Index draw on overlapping census inputs, which builds part of each gradient into the numbers, and the data cannot say how much. The values are crude prevalence among adults and are not adjusted for age. CDC advises against using them to rank the overall health of an area or to track change at the local level, which this chapter does not do.[9] The slopes and coefficients compare tracts and say nothing about the behavior of a person. Within a county the model gives tracts different values only through their demographic composition, so the comparison of the checkup and the dental visit within counties cannot separate behavior from composition at all.

The checkup measure is the share of adults who report a routine checkup in the past year, and the dental measure is the share who report a dental visit. Neither says what happened at the visit, whether the care was timely or whether it was affordable. Dental coverage is a separate matter from medical coverage, and the chapter has no measure of it.

Provider counts locate providers where they practice and divide by residents. They do not measure capacity, wait times or whether a provider accepts a patient's insurance, and county averages hide deserts inside counties and care that crosses county lines. The three provider counts come from different years, 2021 to 2023, and the PLACES estimates describe 2022 on an index built from 2019 to 2023 census data, so the sources do not describe one moment. Connecticut appears in PLACES under planning-region codes, which serve as its counties for the bootstrap, and in CHR under its eight legacy counties. 15 small counties have no deprivation rank and are left out of the tenths in the provider figures, and Puerto Rico is covered by neither PLACES nor the maps.

The association between supply and deprivation could run in either direction or through a third factor such as rurality, and the figures do not separate them. The studies in the box concern coverage and clinic capacity, and none of them estimates how a change in the supply of providers would alter the county gradients.

## References

1. Greenlund, Kurt J.; Lu, Hua; Wang, Yan; Matthews, Kevin A.; LeClercq, Jennifer M.; Lee, Benjamin; Carlson, Susan A. (2022). PLACES: Local Data for Better Health. Preventing Chronic Disease 19: 210459. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd19.210459
2. Kind, Amy J. H.; Buckingham, William R. (2018). Making Neighborhood-Disadvantage Metrics Accessible: The Neighborhood Atlas. New England Journal of Medicine 378(26): 2456-2458. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1802313
3. Tudor Hart, Julian (1971). The Inverse Care Law. The Lancet 297(7696): 405-412. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(71)92410-X
4. University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute (2024). County Health Rankings & Roadmaps Technical Documentation, Version 2. University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute (updated March 18, 2024). https://www.countyhealthrankings.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2024%20CHRR%20Technical%20Document_1.pdf
5. Finkelstein, Amy; Taubman, Sarah; Wright, Bill; Bernstein, Mira; Gruber, Jonathan; Newhouse, Joseph P.; Allen, Heidi; Baicker, Katherine; Oregon Health Study Group (2012). The Oregon Health Insurance Experiment: Evidence from the First Year. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 127(3): 1057-1106. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjs020
6. Baicker, Katherine; Taubman, Sarah L.; Allen, Heidi L.; Bernstein, Mira; Gruber, Jonathan H.; Newhouse, Joseph P.; Schneider, Eric C.; Wright, Bill J.; Zaslavsky, Alan M.; Finkelstein, Amy N. (2013). The Oregon Experiment: Effects of Medicaid on Clinical Outcomes. New England Journal of Medicine 368(18): 1713-1722. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1212321
7. Miller, Sarah; Johnson, Norman; Wherry, Laura R. (2021). Medicaid and Mortality: New Evidence from Linked Survey and Administrative Data. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 136(3): 1783-1829. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjab004
8. Bailey, Martha J.; Goodman-Bacon, Andrew (2015). The War on Poverty's Experiment in Public Medicine: Community Health Centers and the Mortality of Older Americans. American Economic Review 105(3): 1067-1104. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20120070
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2024). PLACES Frequently Asked Questions: Using the Data. CDC PLACES website, page last reviewed August 29, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/places/faqs/using-data/index.html

## Provenance

- Pipeline version: 0.1.0
- Build script: book2/chapters/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/build.py (sha256 4dc2e47fd80746fd69982d9c8af4e068cf34d6389e02b624fecc581717ec6e6b)
- Built on: 2026-10-07
- Site commit: c2b1ff3309cb4a10833f884da91ac0057a66ad0a

Inputs:

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| figures/checkup_slopes_by_state.json | 0f2764a46daa079fb2098294ce69267ea7fc5f0365fc27d1459b59a75e04d2a8 |
| figures/checkup_specifications.json | 68902599b95a1f8f5dc1c994eac81a71a5ad566f8221b4b402c6fe25e0863cd6 |
| figures/checkup_vs_dental.json | b16bc37d663753dd00b0c0baf5b2292305c6844a6efaf1b3a8311a90b056345f |
| figures/coefficient_zoo.json | 597a9227664276b82f7078ef41ed4c63c1e039c4a9c1d3355a2ce8d515269bfd |
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## Machine formats

- Report (HTML): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/report
- Report (Markdown): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/report.md
- Every estimate (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/facts.json
- Table 1, figure "twelve_outcome_gradients" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/twelve_outcome_gradients.json
- Table 2, figure "coefficient_zoo" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/coefficient_zoo.json
- Table 3, figure "checkup_vs_dental" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/checkup_vs_dental.json
- Table 4, figure "care_ledger" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/care_ledger.json
- Table 5, figure "checkup_specifications" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/checkup_specifications.json
- Table 6, figure "checkup_slopes_by_state" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/checkup_slopes_by_state.json
- Table 7, figure "people_per_provider" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/people_per_provider.json
- Table 8, figure "mental_health_provider_map" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/mental_health_provider_map.json
- Table 9, figure "alt_rankings" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/report/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/figures/alt_rankings.json
- Payload of "mental_health_provider_map" (JSON): https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/data/health-behaviors-and-the-supply-of-care/mental_health_provider_map.json
- Index of every report: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/llms.txt; all reports in one file: https://vishalsingh.org/zipcode/llms-full.txt