{
  "alt": "Dumbbell chart with one row for each ANES item, grouped under economic, cultural, racial and immigration headings, joining the graduate gap in 1992 to 2000 to the gap in 2016 to 2024. The five economic rows start left of zero and end close to zero. The cultural, racial and immigration rows lie right of zero in both periods, apart from affirmative action in the first period, and the racial resentment row is the farthest right in both periods.",
  "caption": "In the default view the economic items start left of zero and end near it, while the cultural, racial and immigration items are right of zero in both periods, with affirmative action the exception in the first period. The ring is the earlier period and the dot the later period. In the ANES the economic index went from {fact:d_economic_early} to {fact:d_economic_late} and the cultural index from {fact:d_cultural_early} to {fact:d_cultural_late}. The buttons switch to in-person ANES samples only, to the GSS and to the CES.",
  "data": [
    {
      "change": 0.2522,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.226402,
      "early_hi": -0.176309,
      "early_lo": -0.276495,
      "label": "Government should guarantee jobs",
      "late": 0.0257976,
      "late_hi": 0.0667053,
      "late_lo": -0.01511,
      "n_early": 7299,
      "n_late": 15657,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.320724,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.229778,
      "early_hi": -0.17306,
      "early_lo": -0.286497,
      "label": "Government health insurance",
      "late": 0.0909461,
      "late_hi": 0.131924,
      "late_lo": 0.049968,
      "n_early": 6153,
      "n_late": 15720,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.248166,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.288152,
      "early_hi": -0.235941,
      "early_lo": -0.340363,
      "label": "More government services and spending",
      "late": -0.0399864,
      "late_hi": 0.00144957,
      "late_lo": -0.0814224,
      "n_early": 6985,
      "n_late": 15279,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.314525,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.357772,
      "early_hi": -0.297853,
      "early_lo": -0.417691,
      "label": "More federal spending on the poor",
      "late": -0.0432462,
      "late_hi": -0.0040537,
      "late_lo": -0.0824388,
      "n_early": 5810,
      "n_late": 17496,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.191502,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.102498,
      "early_hi": -0.0511112,
      "early_lo": -0.153885,
      "label": "More federal spending on welfare",
      "late": 0.0890038,
      "late_hi": 0.128469,
      "late_lo": 0.0495382,
      "n_early": 7492,
      "n_late": 17475,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": -0.0501549,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.369141,
      "early_hi": 0.416618,
      "early_lo": 0.321663,
      "label": "Abortion always a personal choice",
      "late": 0.318986,
      "late_hi": 0.357756,
      "late_lo": 0.280215,
      "n_early": 8731,
      "n_late": 16947,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": -0.0755011,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.320077,
      "early_hi": 0.397636,
      "early_lo": 0.242519,
      "label": "Gay couples may adopt",
      "late": 0.244576,
      "late_hi": 0.282339,
      "late_lo": 0.206814,
      "n_early": 3741,
      "n_late": 17295,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0655019,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.173134,
      "early_hi": 0.236265,
      "early_lo": 0.110004,
      "label": "Job protection for gay people",
      "late": 0.238636,
      "late_hi": 0.275853,
      "late_lo": 0.20142,
      "n_early": 4989,
      "n_late": 17386,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.154864,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.0693108,
      "early_hi": 0.124512,
      "early_lo": 0.0141093,
      "label": "Moral traditionalism (two items)",
      "late": 0.224175,
      "late_hi": 0.266433,
      "late_lo": 0.181917,
      "n_early": 8200,
      "n_late": 15550,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0489008,
      "domain": "Racial items",
      "early": 0.18444,
      "early_hi": 0.236227,
      "early_lo": 0.132653,
      "label": "Government effort to help Black Americans",
      "late": 0.233341,
      "late_hi": 0.273793,
      "late_lo": 0.192888,
      "n_early": 7419,
      "n_late": 15764,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.110199,
      "domain": "Racial items",
      "early": -0.0585298,
      "early_hi": -0.00735824,
      "early_lo": -0.109701,
      "label": "Affirmative action in hiring and promotion",
      "late": 0.0516692,
      "late_hi": 0.0937544,
      "late_lo": 0.009584,
      "n_early": 7977,
      "n_late": 15261,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0361606,
      "domain": "Racial items",
      "early": 0.440072,
      "early_hi": 0.49963,
      "early_lo": 0.380514,
      "label": "Racial resentment (four items)",
      "late": 0.476232,
      "late_hi": 0.51681,
      "late_lo": 0.435655,
      "n_early": 6692,
      "n_late": 15748,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0167224,
      "domain": "Immigration",
      "early": 0.356669,
      "early_hi": 0.413837,
      "early_lo": 0.299501,
      "label": "More immigrants admitted",
      "late": 0.373391,
      "late_hi": 0.41404,
      "late_lo": 0.332743,
      "n_early": 6543,
      "n_late": 15694,
      "view": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.366064,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.227573,
      "early_hi": -0.173635,
      "early_lo": -0.281511,
      "label": "Government should guarantee jobs",
      "late": 0.138491,
      "late_hi": 0.251431,
      "late_lo": 0.0255509,
      "n_early": 6391,
      "n_late": 1998,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.452216,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.238281,
      "early_hi": -0.17635,
      "early_lo": -0.300213,
      "label": "Government health insurance",
      "late": 0.213934,
      "late_hi": 0.327184,
      "late_lo": 0.100684,
      "n_early": 5219,
      "n_late": 2058,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.317484,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.278689,
      "early_hi": -0.222831,
      "early_lo": -0.334546,
      "label": "More government services and spending",
      "late": 0.0387954,
      "late_hi": 0.15571,
      "late_lo": -0.0781193,
      "n_early": 6131,
      "n_late": 1914,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.316838,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.38326,
      "early_hi": -0.311319,
      "early_lo": -0.455202,
      "label": "More federal spending on the poor",
      "late": -0.0664221,
      "late_hi": 0.0466197,
      "late_lo": -0.179464,
      "n_early": 4044,
      "n_late": 2154,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.300799,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.100322,
      "early_hi": -0.0412087,
      "early_lo": -0.159435,
      "label": "More federal spending on welfare",
      "late": 0.200477,
      "late_hi": 0.315041,
      "late_lo": 0.0859133,
      "n_early": 5723,
      "n_late": 2149,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0621553,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.36783,
      "early_hi": 0.421365,
      "early_lo": 0.314295,
      "label": "Abortion always a personal choice",
      "late": 0.429985,
      "late_hi": 0.53738,
      "late_lo": 0.32259,
      "n_early": 6974,
      "n_late": 2160,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": -0.0919326,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.366542,
      "early_hi": 0.474386,
      "early_lo": 0.258699,
      "label": "Gay couples may adopt",
      "late": 0.27461,
      "late_hi": 0.38099,
      "late_lo": 0.16823,
      "n_early": 2088,
      "n_late": 2102,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0974453,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.195846,
      "early_hi": 0.271431,
      "early_lo": 0.120261,
      "label": "Job protection for gay people",
      "late": 0.293291,
      "late_hi": 0.395924,
      "late_lo": 0.190659,
      "n_early": 3519,
      "n_late": 2132,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.237285,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.0691941,
      "early_hi": 0.131121,
      "early_lo": 0.00726668,
      "label": "Moral traditionalism (two items)",
      "late": 0.306479,
      "late_hi": 0.428285,
      "late_lo": 0.184674,
      "n_early": 6659,
      "n_late": 1952,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.165935,
      "domain": "Racial items",
      "early": 0.19039,
      "early_hi": 0.246005,
      "early_lo": 0.134775,
      "label": "Government effort to help Black Americans",
      "late": 0.356326,
      "late_hi": 0.471086,
      "late_lo": 0.241565,
      "n_early": 6496,
      "n_late": 1954,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.214414,
      "domain": "Racial items",
      "early": -0.0139082,
      "early_hi": 0.0450564,
      "early_lo": -0.0728729,
      "label": "Affirmative action in hiring and promotion",
      "late": 0.200506,
      "late_hi": 0.323253,
      "late_lo": 0.0777583,
      "n_early": 6351,
      "n_late": 1864,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.160595,
      "domain": "Racial items",
      "early": 0.444675,
      "early_hi": 0.513981,
      "early_lo": 0.375369,
      "label": "Racial resentment (four items)",
      "late": 0.60527,
      "late_hi": 0.719264,
      "late_lo": 0.491276,
      "n_early": 5153,
      "n_late": 1961,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0695669,
      "domain": "Immigration",
      "early": 0.356669,
      "early_hi": 0.413837,
      "early_lo": 0.299501,
      "label": "More immigrants admitted",
      "late": 0.426236,
      "late_hi": 0.539332,
      "late_lo": 0.31314,
      "n_early": 6543,
      "n_late": 1934,
      "view": "ANES face to face"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.212916,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.219941,
      "early_hi": -0.167182,
      "early_lo": -0.272701,
      "label": "Government should improve the living standards of the poor",
      "late": -0.00702549,
      "late_hi": 0.0453483,
      "late_lo": -0.0593993,
      "n_early": 8451,
      "n_late": 10473,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.112808,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.117926,
      "early_hi": -0.0630944,
      "early_lo": -0.172757,
      "label": "Government should help pay for medical care",
      "late": -0.00511815,
      "late_hi": 0.0479243,
      "late_lo": -0.0581606,
      "n_early": 8483,
      "n_late": 10496,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0897203,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.0296391,
      "early_hi": 0.0324646,
      "early_lo": -0.0917427,
      "label": "Too little is spent on welfare",
      "late": 0.0600812,
      "late_hi": 0.122522,
      "late_lo": -0.00235998,
      "n_early": 6221,
      "n_late": 7822,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0262718,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.30236,
      "early_hi": 0.35887,
      "early_lo": 0.245851,
      "label": "Legal abortion for any reason",
      "late": 0.328632,
      "late_hi": 0.388217,
      "late_lo": 0.269047,
      "n_early": 8282,
      "n_late": 7928,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": -0.171345,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.435555,
      "early_hi": 0.49478,
      "early_lo": 0.37633,
      "label": "Sex between two adults of the same sex is not wrong",
      "late": 0.26421,
      "late_hi": 0.316715,
      "late_lo": 0.211704,
      "n_early": 8101,
      "n_late": 10267,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": -0.0389887,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.131086,
      "early_hi": 0.184892,
      "early_lo": 0.0772802,
      "label": "Sex before marriage is not wrong",
      "late": 0.0920975,
      "late_hi": 0.145192,
      "late_lo": 0.0390031,
      "n_early": 8425,
      "n_late": 10480,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": -0.0445096,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.106043,
      "early_hi": 0.164256,
      "early_lo": 0.04783,
      "label": "Marijuana should be legal",
      "late": 0.0615334,
      "late_hi": 0.140769,
      "late_lo": -0.0177023,
      "n_early": 8268,
      "n_late": 5266,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.156826,
      "domain": "Racial items",
      "early": 0.0551166,
      "early_hi": 0.108785,
      "early_lo": 0.00144845,
      "label": "Government has a special obligation to help Black Americans",
      "late": 0.211943,
      "late_hi": 0.265296,
      "late_lo": 0.15859,
      "n_early": 8414,
      "n_late": 10343,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0302118,
      "domain": "Racial items",
      "early": 0.0856826,
      "early_hi": 0.149759,
      "early_lo": 0.0216059,
      "label": "Too little is spent on improving conditions of Black Americans",
      "late": 0.115894,
      "late_hi": 0.178728,
      "late_lo": 0.0530607,
      "n_early": 5844,
      "n_late": 7587,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.112688,
      "domain": "Racial items",
      "early": 0.000567548,
      "early_hi": 0.061676,
      "early_lo": -0.060541,
      "label": "Preferential hiring and promotion of Black Americans",
      "late": 0.113256,
      "late_hi": 0.168507,
      "late_lo": 0.0580043,
      "n_early": 6628,
      "n_late": 10071,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0934117,
      "domain": "Racial items",
      "early": 0.392321,
      "early_hi": 0.457571,
      "early_lo": 0.327071,
      "label": "Disagree that Black Americans should work up without special favors",
      "late": 0.485733,
      "late_hi": 0.539426,
      "late_lo": 0.432039,
      "n_early": 6980,
      "n_late": 10528,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.222643,
      "domain": "Racial items",
      "early": 0.00294478,
      "early_hi": 0.0594899,
      "early_lo": -0.0536004,
      "label": "Black-white differences are mainly due to discrimination",
      "late": 0.225588,
      "late_hi": 0.284438,
      "late_lo": 0.166738,
      "n_early": 8212,
      "n_late": 8114,
      "view": "GSS"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.131124,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": 0.129849,
      "early_hi": 0.15396,
      "early_lo": 0.105737,
      "label": "Oppose repealing the Affordable Care Act",
      "late": 0.260973,
      "late_hi": 0.283028,
      "late_lo": 0.238917,
      "n_early": 55829,
      "n_late": 60856,
      "view": "CES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.124385,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.0092704,
      "early_hi": 0.0161951,
      "early_lo": -0.0347359,
      "label": "Increase spending on welfare",
      "late": 0.115115,
      "late_hi": 0.138502,
      "late_lo": 0.0917276,
      "n_early": 48648,
      "n_late": 51547,
      "view": "CES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.109734,
      "domain": "Economic items",
      "early": -0.0672939,
      "early_hi": -0.0418233,
      "early_lo": -0.0927644,
      "label": "Increase spending on health care",
      "late": 0.0424402,
      "late_hi": 0.0656998,
      "late_lo": 0.0191806,
      "n_early": 48626,
      "n_late": 51547,
      "view": "CES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.109287,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.0728706,
      "early_hi": 0.0968974,
      "early_lo": 0.0488438,
      "label": "Always allow abortion",
      "late": 0.182158,
      "late_hi": 0.20429,
      "late_lo": 0.160025,
      "n_early": 55678,
      "n_late": 60982,
      "view": "CES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.171207,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.163004,
      "early_hi": 0.187529,
      "early_lo": 0.13848,
      "label": "Oppose banning abortion after 20 weeks",
      "late": 0.334211,
      "late_hi": 0.35654,
      "late_lo": 0.311883,
      "n_early": 55421,
      "n_late": 60976,
      "view": "CES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.0781895,
      "domain": "Cultural items",
      "early": 0.122951,
      "early_hi": 0.147066,
      "early_lo": 0.0988364,
      "label": "Oppose prohibiting public funds for abortion",
      "late": 0.201141,
      "late_hi": 0.223296,
      "late_lo": 0.178986,
      "n_early": 55465,
      "n_late": 60982,
      "view": "CES"
    },
    {
      "change": -0.0780713,
      "domain": "Immigration",
      "early": 0.143275,
      "early_hi": 0.167273,
      "early_lo": 0.119277,
      "label": "Conditional legal status for undocumented immigrants",
      "late": 0.0652037,
      "late_hi": 0.0874256,
      "late_lo": 0.0429818,
      "n_early": 56200,
      "n_late": 60944,
      "view": "CES"
    },
    {
      "change": 0.162771,
      "domain": "Immigration",
      "early": 0.0717238,
      "early_hi": 0.0958133,
      "early_lo": 0.0476344,
      "label": "Oppose increasing border security",
      "late": 0.234495,
      "late_hi": 0.256959,
      "late_lo": 0.212031,
      "n_early": 56200,
      "n_late": 60952,
      "view": "CES"
    }
  ],
  "id": "issue_gaps",
  "notes": [
    "Positive gaps mean graduates gave the more liberal answer: more government action on economic and racial items, the more permissive answer on cultural items and more immigration.",
    "The ANES late period mixes in-person and web interviews and has no mode weights for 2020. The in-person view uses the 1992 to 1998 studies and the in-person samples of 2016 and 2024. The racial resentment index and the moral traditionalism item are averages of four and two standardized items.",
    "The CES has no racial item after 2014. The GSS extract has no immigration item.",
    "Items were not asked in every study of a window: gay adoption in 1992 and 2000, job protection in 1992, 1996 and 2000, immigration in 1992 to 1998, the health, poor and welfare items in four of the five early studies, and the resentment items in all but 1996 and part of 1998. The common-items view of the within-party figure uses only items asked in every study.",
    "Intervals are 95% intervals from the Kish effective sample size; they treat the weighted sample as a random sample and ignore the stages of the sample design."
  ],
  "source": "ANES Cumulative Data File, 1992-2024, General Social Survey, 1993-2024, and Cooperative Election Study, 2014 and 2020, as the buttons show; weighted (VCF0009z, weight_use and weight_cumulative)",
  "spec": {
    "group": "domain",
    "hi1": "early_hi",
    "hi2": "late_hi",
    "label1": "1992 to 2000",
    "label2": "2016 to 2024",
    "lo1": "early_lo",
    "lo2": "late_lo",
    "n1": "n_early",
    "n2": "n_late",
    "reference": 0,
    "referenceLabel": "No gap",
    "sort": "data",
    "x1": "early",
    "x2": "late",
    "xDomain": [
      -0.6,
      0.9
    ],
    "xLabel": "Graduate minus non-graduate gap (standard deviations; positive = more liberal answers among graduates)",
    "y": "label"
  },
  "subtitle": "Graduate minus other respondents on each item, standard deviations of the item among all respondents; items oriented so that a higher value is the more liberal answer; ANES studies of 1992 to 2000 and 2016 to 2024 (buttons: ANES in person only, GSS, CES); 95% intervals",
  "table": {
    "columns": [
      {
        "key": "view",
        "label": "Survey view"
      },
      {
        "key": "domain",
        "label": "Domain"
      },
      {
        "key": "label",
        "label": "Item"
      },
      {
        "format": {
          "digits": 2,
          "signed": true
        },
        "key": "early",
        "label": "Early gap (SD)"
      },
      {
        "format": {
          "digits": 2
        },
        "key": "early_lo",
        "label": "95% CI low early"
      },
      {
        "format": {
          "digits": 2
        },
        "key": "early_hi",
        "label": "95% CI high early"
      },
      {
        "format": {
          "thousands": true
        },
        "key": "n_early",
        "label": "n early"
      },
      {
        "format": {
          "digits": 2,
          "signed": true
        },
        "key": "late",
        "label": "Late gap (SD)"
      },
      {
        "format": {
          "digits": 2
        },
        "key": "late_lo",
        "label": "95% CI low late"
      },
      {
        "format": {
          "digits": 2
        },
        "key": "late_hi",
        "label": "95% CI high late"
      },
      {
        "format": {
          "thousands": true
        },
        "key": "n_late",
        "label": "n late"
      },
      {
        "format": {
          "digits": 2,
          "signed": true
        },
        "key": "change",
        "label": "Change (SD)"
      }
    ]
  },
  "title": "The economic gap moved toward zero between 1992 to 2000 and 2016 to 2024, while most cultural, racial and immigration gaps stayed positive",
  "type": "dumbbell",
  "views": [
    {
      "filter": {
        "view": "ANES"
      },
      "id": "anes",
      "label": "ANES"
    },
    {
      "filter": {
        "view": "ANES face to face"
      },
      "id": "anes_ftf",
      "label": "ANES, in person only",
      "spec": {
        "label1": "1992 to 1998",
        "label2": "2016 and 2024"
      },
      "title": "In the in-person ANES samples the economic gaps rose to zero or above and the racial gaps rose"
    },
    {
      "filter": {
        "view": "GSS"
      },
      "id": "gss",
      "label": "GSS",
      "title": "In the GSS the economic gaps moved toward zero and most racial gaps rose"
    },
    {
      "filter": {
        "view": "CES"
      },
      "id": "ces",
      "label": "CES",
      "spec": {
        "label1": "2014",
        "label2": "2020"
      },
      "title": "In the CES graduates moved toward the liberal end on every economic and cultural item from 2014 to 2020"
    }
  ],
  "width": "wide"
}